School  Survey 
Grand  Rapids,  Michigan 

1916 


G5 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


Page 

Preface 11 

Introduction 15 

Chapter  1 1  *-The  Teachers 20 

Chapter         II       Non-Promotions    and    Failures   in    the    Elementary 

Schools    36 

Chapter  III       Introduction  to  Tests  61 

Chapter  IV       Reading,  William  S.  Gray  62 

Chapter  V       Composition,  Matthew  H.  Willing 85 

Chapter  VI       Tests  in  Arithmetic,  George  S.  Counts 106 

Chapter  VII       Penmanship,  Frank  N.  Freeman 129 

Chapter  VIII       Music,  John  B.  Cragun  147 

Chapter        IX       Instruction    in    the    Elementary    Schools,    John    F. 

Bobbitt    155 

Chapter          X       Introduction  to  High-School  Report 208 

Chapter        XI       Secondary  Schools,  Calvin  O.  Davis 212 

Chapter      XII       Special    Classes    of    the    Public    Schools    of    Grand 

Rapids,  Charles  S.  Berry 306 

Chapter    XIII^,' Btiildings  aTld  Equipment,  John  F.  Bobbitt 340 

Chapter     XIV       The  ,  Cpst  rqf   Public,.  ^Education    in    Grand    Rapids, 

e'<\i  }f\  Vf&jbHf  Ovgfl££  JL , 361 

Chapter       XV  *'  The   Business   Management  of  the  Public  Schools, 

Harold  O.   Rugg  441 

Chapter     XVI    ^-Administrative    Organization    476 

Chapter  XVII    ./  Summary    of    the    Report    of    the    Survey    of    the 

Public  $chools  of  Grand  Rapids 484 


LIST  OF  DIAGRAMS 


Diagram  Page 

I       Non-promotions  in  each   grade   for  the  years   1913-14 

and   1914-15  38 

II       Failures  in  reading  for  1913-14  and  1914-15 40 

III  Failures  in  arithmetic  for  1913-14  and  1914-15 41 

IV  Failures  in  geography  for  1913-14  and  1914-15 42 

V       Failures  in  history  for  1913-14  and  1914-15.  43 

VI       Failures  in  language  for  1913-14  and  1914-15 44 

VII       Failures  in  handwork  for  1913-14  and  1914-15 45 

VIII       Failures  in  physiology  for  1913-14  and  1914-15 45 

IX    .   Failures  in  spelling  for  1913-14  and  1914-15 46 

X       Conditional  promotions  in  each  grade  for  1913-14  and 

1914-15 47 

XI       Non-promotions  in  the   Sigsbee   School 56 

XII       Non-promotions  in  the  Diamond  School 57 

XIII  Non-promotions  in  the  Union  School 58 

XIV  Non-promotions  in  the   Lafayette   School 59 

XV       Non-promotions  in  the  Madison  School 60 

XVI       Progress  of  4066  pupils  in  oral  reading 65 

XVII       Oral  reading  scores  in   Grand  Rapids,   Cleveland  and 

Illinois 67 

XVIII       Oral  reading  scores  in  all  schools  and  in  Sigsbee  and 

Oakdale    schools   67 

XIX       Oral  reading  scores  in  all  schools  and  in  East  Leonard 

and  Widdicomb  schools  67 

XX       Oral  reading  scores  in  all  schools  and  in  S.  Division 

and  Hall  schools  67 

XXI       Silent   reading  rate   in    Grand    Rapids,    Cleveland   and 

13  other  cities  76 

XXII       Silent   reading  rate   in  all   schools  and  in  3   selected 

schools    76 

XXIII  Quality  of  reading  in  Grand  Rapids,  Cleveland  and  13 

other   cities   '79 

XXIV  Quality  in   silent  reading  in  all  schools  and  in  3  se- 

lected schools  79 

XXV       Quality  in  silent  reading  in  each  grade  of  4  selected 

schools    81 

XXVI       Quality  in  silent  reading  in  each  grade  of  3  selected 

schools    81 

XXVI:        Scores  in  composition  in  grades  4  and  5  of  17  schools  90 

XXVIII       Scores  in  composition  in  grades  6  and  7  of  17  schools  91 
XXIX       Scores   in   composition   in   grade   8  and  all   grades   of 

17   schools  92 

XXX       Comparison  of  composition  in  17  schools  with  compo- 
sition in  8  individual  schools  95,  96 

XXXI       Comparison  of  composition  in  17  schools  with  compo- 
sition in  9  individual  schools 97,  98,  99 

XXXII       Merit     curves     in     composition — Denver     and     Grand 

Rapids  ._ 100 

XXXIII  Quantity   curves   in   composition — Denver   and    Grand 

Rapids 101 

XXXIV  Medians  for  all  schools  in  15  arithmetic  tests 109 


,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


Diagram  Page 

XXXV       Comparison  of  scores   in  arithmetic  tests  —  Cleveland 

and  Grand  Rapids  ..  ..........................................................  110 

XXXVI       Comparison  of  Cleveland  and  Grand  Rapids  in  arith- 

metic test,  Set  A  ............................................................  Ill 

XXXVII       Comparison  of  Cleveland  and  Grand  Rapids  in  arith- 

metic test,  Set  M  ............................................................  112 

XXXVIII       Comparison  of  Cleveland  and  Grand  Rapids  in  arith- 

metic test,   Set   F  ............................................................  113 

XXXIX       Comparison  of  Cleveland  and  Grand  Rapids  in  arith- 

metic test,   Set   L  ............................................................  114 

XL       Comparison  of  Cleveland  and  Grand  Rapids  in  arith- 

metic test,  Set  N  ..................................  ...........................  115 

XLI       Comparison  of  Cleveland  and  Grand  Rapids  in  arith- 

metic test,  Set  O  ............................................................  116 

XLI  I       Comparison    of   average    scores   made   by   35    schools 

in  arithmetic  ......................................................................  118 

XLIII       Comparison  of  records  in  arithmetic  at  Sigsbee,  Lafa- 

yette, and  Turner  schools  ............................................  119 

XLIV       Scores  in  simple  addition  in  4th  grade  of  31   schools 

and  6th  grade  of  25  schools  ............................................  120 

XLV       Scores  in  arithmetic  —  Set  A  —  by  the  "middle  50%"  of 

schools  in  Cleveland  and  Grand  Rapids  ....................  121 

XLVI       Comparison  of  number  of  examples  "attempted"  and 

"solved"  in  arithmetic  —  Set  M  ....................................  122 

XLVII       Comparison  of  number  of  examples  "attempted"  and 

"solved"  in  arithmetic  —  Set  O  ....................................  123 

XLVIII       Comparison  of  scores  in  arithmetic  of  "fast",  "slow" 

and  "regular"  pupils  ......................................................  124 

XLIX       Comparison  of  scores  in  arithmetic  of  pupils  grouped 

according  to  age  ..............................................................  125 

L       Comparison   of  arithmetic  scores  of  pupils   failing  or 
repeating  below  the  6th  grade  and  of  pupils  re- 
peating above  the  5th  ....................................................  126 

LI        Comparison  in  7th  grade  of  arithmetic  scores  of  "regu- 

lars",   "irregulars"    and    "failures"    ............................  127 

LII       Speed  of  writing  in  Grand  Rapids  and  56  cities  ............  130 

LIII       Form  in  handwriting  in  Grand  Rapids  and  55  cities....  132 

LIV       Speed  in  handwriting  in  St.  Louis  and  56  cities  ............  133 

LV       Form  in  handwriting  in  St.  Louis  and  55  cities  ................  134 

LVI       Rank  in  the  formal  writing  test  and  the  composition 

test  ........................................................................................  136 

LVI  I       Speed    and    form    in    handwriting    for    each    grade    in 

Grand  Rapids  ....................................................................  138 

LVI  1  1       Speed  and  form  in  handwriting  for  6  selected  schools 

................................................................................  139,    140,    141 

LIX       Speed  and  form  in  handwriting  at  Widdicomb  School 

and  in  56  cities  ..................................................................  143 

LX       Speed  and  form  in  handwriting  at  Pine  School  and  in 

56  cities  ................................................................................  144 

LXI       Speed  and  form  in  handwriting  at  Hall  School  and  in 

56  cities  ................................................................................  145 

LXII       Median  scores  in  music  for  Grand  Rapids  and  for  a 

composite  group  ..............................................................  152 


LIST  OF  DIAGRAMS 


Diagram  Page 

LXIII       Distribution  of  grades  in  junior  and  senior  college 270 

LXIV       Training  of  high-school  teachers 279 

LXV       Teaching  experience  of  high-school  teachers 280 

LXVI       Range  of  salaries  of  high-school  teachers 281 

LXVII       Range    of    salaries    of    elementary    and    high-school 

teachers  for  12  typical  cities 283 

LXV.III       How  high-school  teachers  have   spent  summer  vaca- 
tions    285 

LXIX       Departmentalization  of  high-school  work 286 

LXX       Range  of  subjects  taught  daily  by  high-school  teachers  287 
LXXI       Time  spent  by  high-school  teachers  preparing  work....  288 

LXXII       Range  in  time  spent  by  teachers  preparing  work 289 

LXXIII       Range    in   time    high-school    teachers    spend    daily   on 

duties   other   than   class    recitations 290 

LXXIV       Range  of  promotions  by  high-school  teachers 292 

LXXV       High-school    teachers    failing    certain    percentages    of 

pupils 293 

LXXVI       Pupils  "passed",  "not  passed"  and  "conditioned".  Sum- 
mary for  4  years — Central  High  School 294 

LXX VII       Pupils  "passed",  "not  passed"  and  "conditioned",  by 

departments — Central   High   School 

296,  297,  298,  299,  300,  301 

LXXVIII       Comparison  of  possible  taxation  with  actual  tax  levy 

for  general  purposes  367 

LXX IX       Comparison  of  possible  taxation  with  actual  tax  levy 

for  permanent  improvements  ...., 368 

LXXX       Expenditures  per  inhabitant  for  19  cities 376 

LXXXI       Expenditures    for   all    school    purposes    per   $1,000   of 

real   wealth — 19  cities  378 

LXXXII       Expenditures  per  inhabitant  for  all  city  departments 

and  for  schools  380 

LXXXIII       Per  cent  of  total  cost  payments  to  schools — 19  cities  381 
LXXXIV       Amount  spent  for  current  expenses  and  permanent  im- 
provements, 1902-1915  384 

LXXXV       Increase  in  number  of  teachers  and  in  average  salary 

paid  them,   1905-1915  386 

LXXXVI       Per  cent  of  current  expenditures  for  educational  and 

business  purposes  391 

LXXXVII      Expenditures  per  pupil   in  average   daily  attendance, 

for  capital  outlay  396 

LXXXVIII      Expenditures    per   pupil    in    average    daily   attendance 

for   elementary   and   secondary   education 404 

LXXXIX       Number    of    pupils    per    teacher    in    different    school 

grades   407 

XC       Number    of    pupils    per    teacher    in  .elementary    and 

secondary  schools  411 

XCI       Comparison    of    Board    of    Education    and    Common 

Council    budgets    for    permanent    improvements....  421 
XCII       Total  amounts  of  bonds  issued  each  year,  1887-1913....  424 
XCIII       Total  city  and  school  bonded  indebtedness,  1890-1915  425 
XCIV       Distribution  of  general  functions  in  the  Grand  Rapids 

school  system 442 


LIST  OF  TABLES 


Table  Page 

I       Distribution  of  that  part  of  the  population  of  Grand 

Rapids  having  close  foreign  relations 15 

II       Some  leading  industries  of  Grand  Rapids 17 

III  Educational  Institutions  at  work  in  Grand  Rapids 18 

IV  Training  of  high-school  teachers  of  academic  subjects     22 
V       Training   of   elementary  and    high-school   teachers   of 

special  subjects 23 

VI       Training  of  teachers  of  the  grades 26 

VII       Training  of  kindergarten  teachers  26 

VIII       Experience  of  kindergarten  teachers 27 

IX       Experience  of  H.  S.  teachers  of  ac'd  subjects 29 

X       Experience  of  elementary  and  high-school  teachers  of 

special  subjects 30 

XI       Experience  of  teachers  of  the  grades 32 

XII       Experience  of  principals  34 

XIII  Training  of  principals 34 

XIV  Non-promotions  for  the  years  1913-14  and  1914-15....52,  53 
XV       Trial  promotions  for  the  years  1913-14  and  1914-15....54,  55 

XVI       Scores  in  oral  reading  for  37  schools 66 

XVII       Rates  in  silent  reading  for  37  schools 75 

XVIII       Quality  score  in  silent  reading  for  37  schools 78 

XIX       Dist.  of  merit  scores  in  comp'sn  in  17  schools 89 

XX       Quantity  and  merit  medians  and  quartile  deviations  in 

merit  in  composition  for  17  schools 94 

XXI       Merit  rankings  in  composition  of  17  schools 103 

XXII       Comparison   of  quantity   and   merit   medians   in   com- 
position in  the  Denver  and  Grand  Rapids  schools  104 

XXIII  Quantity     and     merit     medians     in     composition     for 

schools  tested  by  principals 105 

XXIV  Medians  for  each  arithmetic  test  for  all  grades 108 

XXV       Speed  and  form  in  writing  in   each  grade   of   Grand 

Rapids  schools 131 

XXVI       Results  of  speed,  form-writing,  and  form-composition 

tests  in  each  grade  of  Grand  Rapids   schools 137 

XXVII       Composite  median  scores  for  sight  reading  in  music — 

St.  Louis,  Grand  Rapids,  Chicago 151 

XXVTTI       Median  scores  for  sight  reading  in  music,  G.  R 151 

XXIX       Comparison    of    music    scores — Turner    School,    com- 
posite group,  best  Grand  Rapids  score 153 

XXX        Hours  per  year  to  history — Grand  Rapids — 50  cities....  168 

XXXI       Time  given  to  man'l  training  and  household  occupa'ns  201 

XXXII       Enrollment  in  Grand  Rapids  schools— 1910-1915 220 

XXXIII  Enrollment  in  certain  high-school  classes 258 

XXXIV  Facts  concerning  enrollment  of  high-school   students 

according  to  subject  260 

XXXV       Records  of  17  classes  at  Union  H.  S 261 

XXXVI       Wages  earned  during  summer  by  9  members  of  man- 
ual training  class  at  Union   School 262 

XXXVII       Percentage  of  pupil-elimination  by  teachers... 262 

XXXVIII       Percentage  of  total  high-school  enrollment  in  gradu- 
ating class — Grand  Rapids  and  14  cities 263 


LIST  OF  TABLES 


Table  Page 

XXXIX       Graduates  entering  college  during  four  'years — Grand 

Rapids   and  9  cities  263 

XL       Record  of  H.  S.  graduates  at  U.  of  M 264 

XL1        Comparison    of    grades    given    16    students    at    Junior 

College  and  various  senior-college  institutions 269 

XLII       Relative   standing  of  students   in   Junior   College  and 

other  colleges  269 

XLII  I       Grades  obtained  in  senior  college  in  subjects  not  be- 
gun in  Junior  College  270 

XLIV       Distribution  of  grades  among  junior-college  students 

entering  senior  colleges  in  1915 271 

XLV       Record  of  academic  training,  experience  and  salaries 

of   high-school   teachers   278 

XLVI       Comparison  of  range  of  salaries — G.   R.  and  11   cities  282 
XLVII       How   high-school   teachers   have   spent   summer  vaca- 
tions for  past  six  years  284 

XLVI  1 1       Departmentalization  of  work  in  the  high  schools 284 

XLIX       Time  teachers  spend  daily  in  prepar'n  of  school  work  287 
L       Range  of  time  spent  daily  by  high-school  teachers  on 

duties  other  than  class  recitations 289 

LI       High-school  teach's  promoting  stated  perc'es  of  pupils  291 

LII       H.  S.  teachers  failing  stated  percentages  of  pupils 291 

LIII       Percentages  of  marks  by  Depts.  Central  H.  S.  1911-15  295 
LIV       Percentage   of  pupils  passed  and  not  passed  by  indi- 
vidual teachers — Central  High  School 295 

LV       Growth  in  enrollment  in  special  classes  during  8  years  307 
LVI       Increase   in   percentage   of  pupils  two  years  or  more 

over  age  in  special  classes 308 

LVII       Retardation   in   the   elementary   schools 308 

LVI  1 1       Number  of  pupils  retarded  one   year... 309 

LIX       Increase  in  size  of  auxiliary  classes  during  5  years 312 

LX       Range  in  chronological  and  mental  ages  of  pupils  in 

auxiliary  classes  312 

LXI       Results  of  3  tests  in  auxiliary  classes 318 

LXII       Comparison  of  attendance  truant  and  all  other  schools  337 

LXIII       Annual  tax  levies  for  school  and  city  purposes 366 

LXIV       Sources  and  amts.  of  rev.  of  Board  of  Education 372 

LXV       Relation   of  expenditures  to  revenue   receipts 373 

LXVI       Expenditures  for  all  school  purposes  per  inhabitant....  375 
LXVII       Expend,  for  school  purposes  per  $1,000  of  real  wealth  377 

LXVIII       Expenditures  per  inhabitant  for  various-  city  depts 379 

LXIX       Per  cent  of  governmental  cost  payments — various  city 

departments  379 

LXX       Rank  in  per  cent  governmental  cost  payments — vari- 
ous city  departments  382 

LXXI       Amount    spent   for   current    expenditures   and   perma- 
nent improvements,  1902-1915 383 

LXXII       Salary  expenditures — teachers,  janitors,  administration  385 
LXXI  1 1       Distribution  of  educational  and  business  expenditures 

of  the  Board  of  Education,  1911-1915 388 

LXXIV       Total  and  per  capita  expenditures  for  educational  and 

business  purposes  389 

LXXV       Per    cent    of   total    expenditures    for    educational    and 

business  purposes  390 

LXXVI       Distrib.  of  current  expenditures  for  educational  service  393 
LXXVII       Per   cent   of  current   expend,    for   educational   service  394 


10 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


Table                                                                                                             Page 
LXXVIII       Current  expenditures  per  pupil  in  average  daily  atten- 
dance, 19  cities  395 

LXXIX       Rank  of  19  cities  in  current  expenditures  per  pupil  in 

average  daily  attendance 395 

LXXX       Expenditures  for  capital  outlay,  1910-11  to  1914-15 397 

LXXXI       Expenditures  per  pupil  for  various   specific  kinds  of 

service,   19  cities  399 

LXXXII       Rank   in   expenditures   per   pupil   for  various   specific 

kinds  of  service,  19  cities 400 

LXXXIII       Rank  of  19  cities  in  number  of  supervisors  per  1000 

pupils  401 

LXXXIV       Minimum,  maximum  and  average  salary  paid  to  super- 
visors in  cities  of  50,000-100,000 401 

LXXXV       Current    expenditures    for    elementary   and    secondary 

schools,  17  cities  403 

LXXXVI       Per  cent  of  current  expenditures  for  elementary  and 

secondary  schools,   17  cities  405 

LXXXVII      Distribution  of  officers  and  teachers  in  different  grades 

of   schools   .406 

LXXXVIII      Distribution  of  enrollment  and  pupils  per  teacher  in 

various  grades  of  schools 406 

LXXXIX       Pupils  in  average   daily  attendance   per  teacher — ele- 
mentary and   secondary  schools 410 

XC       Average  salaries  of  teachers,   1915-16 412 

XCI       Median    salary    paid    to    elementary    and    high-school 

teachers  and  elementary-school  principals 414 

XCII       Salary    schedules     for    high-school    and    elementary- 
school   teachers   415 

XCIII       Increase  in  salary  schedules  in  G.  R.  1907-15 416 

XCIV       Summary  of  ranks  of  Grand  Rapids  among  cities  of 

its  class  in  expenditures  for  school  activities 417 

XCV       Comparison    of    Board    of    Education    and    Common 

Council  budgets  420 

XCVI       Permanent  imp's  paid  for  out  of  budget,  1906-15.. 422 

XCVII       Bonds  issued,  rate  of  int.  and  term  for  which  issued  423 

XCVIII       School  and  city  bonded  indebtedness  1890  to  1915 423 

XCIX       Bonds  issued  for  different  grades  of  schools,  1887-1913  427 

C       Outstanding  bonds  maturing  each  year,  1916-1930 428 

CI       Cost  of  teaching  high-school  subiects — Central  High 

School  430 

CII       Average  size  classes  in  Central  High  School,  1915-16....  431 
CIII       Cost  of  teaching  per  pupil  in  7th  and  8th  grades  of 

5  elementary  schools,  1911-1916 434 

CIV       Cost  of  instruction   per  pupil   in   the  9th  grade   of  4 

high   schools,    1912-1916  436 

CV       Semester  costs  of  inst.  per  pupil,  special  classes  438,  439 
CVI       Costs    of   instruction    per   pupil — special    schools    and 

classes  438 

CVII       Cost  of  instruction  per  pupil  in  7th  and  8th  grades  in 

2  intermediate   schools  : 438 

CVIII       Data  on  janitors  sals,  for  elementary  sch'ls,  9  cities  452,  453 

CIX       Approximate  monthly  salary  paid  to  janitors 451 

CX       Payroll  of  repair  force  457 

CXI       Payment  to  outside  architects  and  engineers,   1906-16  462 
CXII       Cost  data  for  fireproof  elementary-school  buildings     ..465 


PREFACE 


The  survey  of  the  schools  of  Grand  Rapids  was  initiated  by 
the  School  Board  of  the  city  for  the  purpose  of  studying  the  effi- 
ciency of  instruction.  The  original  purpose  of  the  survey  was  to 
take  up  only  the  strictly  instructional  problems.  A  survey  staff 
was  organized  for  the  purpose  of  visiting  the  various  classrooms 
and  conducting  such  tests  as  seemed  desirable  in  order  to  evalu- 
ate the  work  carried  on  in  these  classes. 

As  the  testing  and  observation  went  forward  it  became  ob- 
vious that  the  results  obtained  in  the  schools  were  in  the  main 
of  a  satisfactory  type.  The  survey  staff  raised  at  this  point  the 
question  of  the  costs  of  conducting  the  schools  of  the  city.  It 
was  pointed  out  to  the  Board  of  Education  that  results  of  the 
type  that  were  appearing  in  the  tests  and  observations  could 
hardly  be  expected  without  a  cost  to  the  city  which  was  high  as 
compared  with  costs  in  other  cities.  At  the  suggestion  of  the 
survey  staff  the  Board  of  Education  extended  the  scope  of  the 
survey  so  as  to  include  a  comparative  study  of  the  costs  of  the 
system. 

In  the  consideration  of  school  costs  and  of  the  business 
organization  of  the  central  office  several  problems  of  a  general 
administrative  type  appeared  and  in  a  final  conference  with  the 
survey  staff  the  Board  of  Education  decided  that  it  was  desirable 
that  the  survey  report  should  be  extended  to  include  the  discus- 
sion of  the  general  organization  of  the  school  system. 

This  description  of  the  progressive  enlargements  of  the 
scope  of  the  survey  furnishes  a  favorable  opportunity  for  com- 
ment on  the  general  purpose  and  function  of  a  school  survey.  It 
is  not  the  business  of  such  an  inquiry  to  determine  the  individual 
efficiency  of  particular  teachers.  It  is  rather  the  duty  of  the 
survey  to  bring  together  the  evidences  that  show  in  general  the 
character  of  the  work  done  by  the  system  as  a  whole.  It  is  the 
duty  of  the  survey  to  show  the  points  at  which  the  system  is 
most  highly  efficient  and  the  points  at  which  suggestions  of 
improvement  can  be  made. 

A  first  survey  of  a  school  system  is  limited  in  that  it  can  not 
show  how  far  the  system  has  progress'ed  from  year  to  year. 


12  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

There  is  little  material  at  hand  to  furnish  a  background  of  com- 
parison with  earlier  conditions  in  the  system.  Thus,  as  will  be 
shown  in  the  later  pages  of  this  report,  the  various  schools  of 
this  city  show  different  degrees  of  efficiency  in  different  aspects 
of  their  work.  Some  are  better  than  others  in  penmanship  or 
arithmetic.  Comparisons  between  different  schools  can  thus  be 
made  and  the  results  can  be  studied.  But  the  question  whether 
in  any  particular  a  given  school  is  more  efficient  at  the  present 
time  than  it  was  three  years  ago  is  not  easy  to  answer  because 
there  is  no  comparable  record  of  the  achievements  of  the  pupils 
three  years  ago.  A  periodic  inventory  of  the  school  system 
would  be  very  advantageous,  because  it  would  serve  to  show  the 
direction  in  which  the  school  system  has  been  moving. 

Heretofore  city  school  systems  have  devoted  the  major  part 
of  their  energy  to  the  routine  duties  of  conducting  classes  for  the 
pupils.  The  time  has  arrived  when  it  is  necessary  in  the  inter- 
ests of  efficiency  that  a  certain  portion  of  the  system's  energy  be 
set  aside  for  the  critical  scrutiny  of  results.  It  is  the  duty  of  the 
schools,  as  it  is  the  recognized  obligation  of  every  business  cor- 
poration, to  check  up  its  results  as  fully  and  as  frequently  as  pos- 
sible for  the  purpose  of  avoiding  wastage  and  for  the  purpose  of 
securing  any  suggestions  which  can  be  profitably  incorporated 
into  new  forms  of  organization. 

Whether  this  work  of  constantly  checking  up  the  efficiency 
of  a  system  shall  be  carried  on  through  an  increase  in  the  super- 
visory staff  of  the  system  itself  or  through  the  importation  from 
time  to  time  of  workers  outside  of  the  city  system  is  a  problem 
which  it  is  not  easy  to  solve.  In  the  present  case  the  Board  of 
Education  felt  that  it  was  desirable  for  the  purpose  of  the  survey 
to  import  temporarily  into  the  school  system  a  number  of  stud- 
ents of  education  who  were  not  attached  in  any  permanent  way 
to  the  city  system.  It  is  possible,  on  the  other  hand,  to  add  to 
the  supervisory  staff  an  officer  whose  business  it  shall  be  to 
make  an  annual  study  of  educational  problems.  This  device  is 
exemplified  in  a  number  of  cities  in  the  United  States.  They  em- 
ploy efficiency  experts  connected  with  the  office  of  the  superin- 
tendent. 

The  advantages  that  come  from  securing  a  group  of  outside 
educators  can  readily  be  seen  in  that  different  points  of  view 
will  always  be  contributed  through  the  efforts  of  these  outsiders. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  to  be  frankly  admitted  that  outsiders 
overlook  many  of  the  details  of  the  school  organization  which 
might  very  profitably  be  made  subjects  of  intensive  study. 

The  addition  to  the  supervisory  staff  of  an  officer  whose 
business  it  is  to  scrutinize  the  schools  constantly  also  has  certain 


PREFACE  13 

obvious  advantages.  It  is  possible  to  take  up  in  succession  prob- 
lems that  require  time  and  long  comparative  studies  for  their 
solution. 

Perhaps  a  combination  of  the  two  types  of  surveys  will 
ultimately  be  worked  out.  It  will  be  possible  in  many  instances 
for  the  Board  to  secure  the  co-operative  judgments  of  different 
persons  in  the  solution  of  special  problems.  There  should,  how- 
ever, be  a  larger  provision  for  studies  to  be  carried  on  each  year. 
It  is  recommended  that  in  the  future  Grand  Rapids  select  for 
study  each  year  one  or  two  problems.  The  teaching  staff  would 
be  stimulated  by  continuous  studies  of  educational  problems  and 
the  schools  would  profit  by  a  continuous  investigation  of  new 
problems.  From  time  to  time  elaborate  inventory  may  be  taken 
of  the  school  activities.  Such  a  program  as  this  suggests  the 
possibility  of  combining  the  advantages  of  both  types  of  investi- 
gation above  discussed. 

The  personnel  of  the  staff  which  made  the  present  survey 
is  as  follows: 

Professor  Charles  S.  Berry,  University  of  Michigan,  pre- 
pared the  report  on  special  classes. 

Professor  John  F.  Bobbitt,  University  of  Chicago,  prepared 
the  report  on  the  elementary  school  curriculum  and  on  the  school 
buildings. 

Dr.  George  S.  Counts,  Delaware  University,  prepared  the 
report  on  arithmetic. 

Mr.  John  B.  Cragun,  University  of  Chicago,  prepared  the 
report  on  music. 

Professor  Calvin  O.  Davis,  University  of  Michigan,  prepared 
the  report  on  high  schools. 

Superintendent  John  H.  Francis,  Los  Angeles  Public 
Schools,  reported  briefly  as  indicated  in  the  discussion  of  junior 
high  schools  on  the  work  of  that  part  of  the  system. 

Professor  Frank  N.  Freeman,  University  of  Chicago,  pre- 
pared the  report  on  writing. 

Dr.  William  S.  Gray,  University  of  Chicago,  prepared  the 
report  on  reading. 

Dr.  Benjamin  F.  Pittenger,  University  of  Texas,  prepared 
a  large  part  of  the  statistical  material  used  in  the  chapters  on 
teachers  and  promotions. 

Dr.  Harold  O.  Rugg,  University  of  Chicago,  prepared  the 
report  on  school  finance. 

Mr.  Matthew  H.  Willing,  University  of  Chicago,  prepared 
the  report  on  composition. 

Professor  Charles  H.  Judd,  University  of  Chicago,  organized 


14  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

the  survey  staff  and  edited  the  results,  contributing  the  portions 
of  the  report  not  otherwise  indicated. 

General  acknowledgment  is  to  be  made  of  the  courtesy  and 
co-operation  of  all  of  the  officers  of  the  Grand  Rapids  schools. 
The  teachers,  principals,  and  officers  at  the  central  offices  have 
in  every  case  given  assistance  whenever  asked  and  have  ans- 
wered all  questions. 

The  survey  staff  cannot  refrain  from  comment  on  the  for- 
tunate conditions  under  which  this  survey  was  inaugurated  and 
carried  out.  No  motive  of  serious  tension  within  the  system  and 
no  impending  reorganization  forced  from  without  by  discon- 
tented or  doubtful  patrons  prompted  the  survey.  It  is  the  good 
fortune  of  the  staff  to  have  shared  in  a  critical  study  of  a  school 
system,  self-imposed  and  welcomed  at  every  stage. 


INTRODUCTION 


There  is  no  need  of  discussing  at  length  the  general  char- 
acteristics of  the  city  of  Grand  Rapids.  For  most  of  the  pur- 
poses of  this  survey  the  figures  for  population  will  be  taken  from 
special  reports  by  the  Bureau  of  Census.  The  number  of  foreign- 
born  inhabitants  of  the  city  can  be  secured  in  full  only  by  referr- 
ing back  to  the  census  of  1910.  At  that  time  there  were  111,879 
white  persons  and  665  negros  in  Grand  Rapids.  Of  the  total 
white  population  36.2  per  cent  or  40,777  persons  were  native- 
born  and  born  of  native  parentage ;  25.2  per  cent  or  28,335  per- 
sons were  foreign-born ;  38.0  per  cent  or  42,767  were  born  in  this 
country  of  foreign  or  mixed  parents.  The  following  table  gives 
the  statistics  of  the  more  numerous  nationalities  represented 
among  those  of  immediate  foreign  antecedents. 

TABLE  I 

Table  from  the  Census  of  1910  Showing  Distribution  of  that  Part 
of  the  Population  of  Grand  Rapids  which  has  Close  Foreign  Relations. 

Total  Number 

Foreign   Born,  Native  Born,  of  Foreign 

Born    in  Both  Parents  Born  in  Descent 

Holland     11,891        Holland     12,742  24,633 

Germany    ..                            ...  4.546        Germany     6,749  11,295 

Russia    3,557         Russia     1,570  5,127 

Canada  (Not  French) 2,997        Canada    (Not    French) 1,222  4,219 

Ireland     871         Ireland    1,828  2,699 

Austria    549        Austria   389  938 

Italy     319        Italy    178  497 

Canada    (French)    197        Canada   (French)  150  347 

The  Dutch  population,  which  is  seen  to  be  the  predominant 
foreign  element  in  the  population  of  Grand  Rapids,  supports  a 
number  of  parochial  schools.  There  are  also  parochial  schools 
conducted  under  the  control  of  the  Catholic  church.  These  draw 
a  considerable  population,  not  only  from  the  foreign-born  but 
also  from  the  native-born  inhabitants  of  the  city.  Detailed  fig- 
ures are  not  at  hand  for  the  attendance  in  these  schools.  It  is 
one  of  the  important  functions  of  the  Census  Bureau  which  has 
been  organized  by  the  Board  of  Education  to  make  a  complete 
showing  of  the  children  who  are  attending  these  special  schools 


16  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

as  well  as  of  the  children  who  are  in  attendance  at  the  public 
schools. 

The  Bureau  of  Census  of  the  Board  of  Education  is  organ- 
ized at  the  present  time  as  part  of  the  business  office  of  the 
secretary  of  the  Board  of  Education.  A  card  has  here  been 
made  up  for  each  child  in  the  city  which  includes  much  valuable 
information  and  would  be  of  very  great  service  to  the  attendance 
department  which  is  in  the  office  of  the  superintendent  of 
schools.  Comment  will  be  made  in  a  later  section  of  this  report 
on  the  desirability  of  bringing  into  closer  relation  the  business 
and  instructional  divisions  of  the  central  office.  The  census  is 
a  crucial  element  of  the  whole  situation.  If  cards  could  be  care- 
fully prepared  for  a  year  or  two,  showing  all  of  the  children 
in  the  city  and  their  distribution  in  different  schools,  and  if  these 
cards  could  be  brought  into  close  comparison  with  the  cumula- 
tive records  which  the  school  system  has  worked  out  as  a  part 
of  its  educational  machinery,  the  further  taking  of  the  school 
census  would  be  greatly  facilitated  and  the  information  which 
the  city  has  about  its  children  would  be  complete.  Such  a  com- 
plete body  of  information  would  serve  a  great  many  public  pur- 
poses other  than  that  which  is  now  served  by  the  census.  At 
the  present  time  the  census  serves  merely  as  a  basis  for  the 
drawing  of  state  funds  for  public  schools.  It  is  not  useful  at 
the  present  time  as  a  basis  for  the  activities  of  the  attendance 
officers,  and  it  is  not  as  fully  as  it  should  be,  an  instrument  for 
the  educational  improvement  of  the  city. 

Wherever  parochial  schools  exist  the  school  problem  is  com- 
plicated. The  complications  which  naturally  arise  under  these 
conditions  \vould  be  in  some  measure  alleviated  if  the  children 
could  be  located  and  their  station  in  the  various  schools  deter- 
mined. It  is  also  desirable  that  parochial  schools  be  brought  in- 
to closer  contact  with  each  other  and  with  the  public  schools  so 
far  as  standards  of  training  are  concerned.  The  whole  com- 
munity is  interested,  whatever  may  be  the  desires  of  individual 
parent's  for  special  types  of  training  for  their  children,  in  a 
standardized  scheme  of  education  which  shall  offer  to  every 
child  opportunities  of  the  most  complete  type.  A  census  bureau 
including  all  of  the  children  would  be  a  first  step  in  the  general 
equalization  of  educational  opportunities.  Later  steps  could 
be  confidently  expected  if  the  children,  being  well  located,  were 
systematically  studied  by  public  officers  in  all  of  their  education- 
al activities, 

The  schools  of  Grand  Rapids  will  reflect  in  some  measure 
the  economic  character  of  the  city.  It  hardly  needs  to  be  pointed 
out  in  a  report  of  this  kind  that  the  city  is  famous  the  world 


INTRODUCTION  17 

over  for  its  manufacture  of  furniture  and  furniture  accessories. 
It  has  other  industries  which  are  represented  in  the  following 
table  which  is  taken  from  the  statistics  compiled  by  the  Busi- 
ness School  Club  of  the  Harvard  Graduate  School  of  Business 
Administration  in  January,  1915.  This  table  of  the  business 
activities  of  the  city  suggests  very  emphatically  the  importance 
of  a  larger  recognition  of  the  problem  of  industrial  education. 
The  problem  of  training  workers  in  the  trades  has  come  to  be 
more  and  more  clearly  recognized  everywhere  in  this  country. 
Grand  Rapids  is  doing  much  in  its  night  school,  also  in  its 
development  of  vocational  guidance  and  in  its  general  educa- 
tional activities  for  the  people  who  are  at  work  in  the  factories 
of  the  city.  There  is  still,  however,  an  unaccepted  opportunity 
for  an  extension  of  trade  training  under  public  auspices.  The 
training  of  mechanics  can  no  longer  be  provided  for  in  this 
country  under  the  apprenticeship  system.  The  National  Society 
for  the  Promotion  of  Industrial  Education  has  recently  made 
two  extended  surveys  of  the  industries  of  cities.  One  of  these 

TABLE  II 
Some  Leading  Industries  of  Grand  Rapids. 


Furniture     

Number  of  Number  of 
Plants     Employes 
54             7,250 
68                 832 
49              1,532 
20                 594 
36                 458 
8                 118 

Capitalization 
$13,321,905 
1,629,397 
2,814,500 
1,434,000 
236,350 
1,152,690 

Annual  Wage 
Expenditure 
$3,902,780 
488,656 
825,131 
342,581 
187,801 
71,691 

Foundries    and    Machine    Shops  
Planing    Mills    

Flour    .. 

surveys  was  made  in  Richmond,  Virginia,  and  the  other  in  Min- 
neapolis, Minnesota.  In  both  of  these  cases  attention  was  called 
to  the  urgent  need  for  adjustments  within  the  educational  system 
to  the  peculiar  industrial  needs  of  the  city  itself. 

It  has  not  been  the  function  of  the  present  survey  to  canvass 
the  industrial  activities  of  the  city  of  Grand  Rapids.  It  would  be 
a  very  useful  work  for  the  city  to  undertake  and  one  in  which  the 
business  men  would  undoubtedly  be  interested  if  the  school 
officers  would  canvass  in  full  the  educational  requirements  which 
parallel  the  industries  of  the  city.  The  high  schools  with  their 
shops  and  the  elementary  schools,  especially  the  junior  high 
school,  with  their  opportunities  for  manual  training  and  art 
work,  are  meeting  in  some  measure  the  needs  of  industrial 
training  or  general  training  of  a  vocational  type.  This  work 
would  be  very  much  more  definitely  aimed  at  the  needs  of  the 
•city  if  a  general  canvass  were  made  of  all  of  the  industrial  de- 
mands and  educational  possibilities  furnished  by  the  unique 
industrial  development  of  the  city  of  Grand  Rapids. 


18  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

The  attention  of  the  citizens  should  be  especially  drawn  to 
the  possibilites  of  a  part-time  scheme  of  education  which  could 
be  elaborated  in  a  way  to  utilize  the  various  factories  of  the 
city  for  educational  ends,  and  at  the  same  time  apply  the  public- 
school  equipment  in  an  improvement  of  industries. 

A  table  prepared  by  Professor  C.  O.  Davis  in  connection 
with  his  study  of  the  secondary  schools  of  the  city  illustrates 
another  phase  of  public  education  which  should  riot  be  omitted 
from  any  general  consideration  of  the  educational  opportunities 
of  the  city  of  Grand  Rapids.  This  table  gives  the  leading  public 
institutions  that  can  be  regarded  as  co-operating  with  the  schools 
in  the  education  of  the  people. 

TABLE  III 
Institutions  which  Carry  on  Educational  Work  in  Grand  Rapids. 

Libraries:  5,  with  branches  in  11  schools  and  also. in  1  separate  building. 

Hospitals,  asylums,  benevolent  organizations:  32. 

Public  parks:  40. 

Secret  and  benevolent  societies:  41  orders  with  127  societies. 

Clubs    (literary,  business,  social,  etc.):   127. 

Musical  societies   (many  of  them  of  distinctive  influence) :  8. 

Bands  and  orchestras:   17. 

Theaters  and  places  of  public  amusement:  32. 

Newspapers  and  periodicals:  37,  several  being  trade  journals  and  several 
being  the  publications  of  various  national  groups  of  citizens. 

Churches:  22  distinct  denominations  with  112  edifices. 

Building  and  loan  associations:  5. 

Colleges  and  schools  (including  musical,  business,  designing,  corre- 
spondence, kindergarten,  collegiate,  and  theological  divisions):  14. 

Convents  and  private  schools:  45. 

Commercial  organizations:   10. 

It  will  be  noted  especially  that  in  this  table  reference  is 
made  to  those  agencies  which  provide  for  the  use  of  the  leisure 
time  of  the  citizens  of  Grand  Rapids.  One  of  the  educational 
problems  of  which  this  generation  is  becoming  keenly  aware  is 
the  problem  of  providing  suitable  amusement  for  the  people. 

The  leisure  time  of  all  classes  of  people  has  been  increasing 
with  the  improvement  in  economic  conditions.  To  provide  for 
their  leisure  time  is  a  large  civic  problem.  The  schools  of  Grand 
Rapids  are  doing  much  to  help  solve  this  problem  especially  for 
the  young  people.  It  is  beyond  the  scope  of  this  survey  to  take 
up  the  study  of  all  the  civic  agencies  which  are  engaged  in  the 
task.  It  may  not  be  out  of  place,  however,  to  suggest  that  an 
investigation  might  be  carried  out  which  would  be  of  great 


INTRODUCTION  19 

value  first  in  bringing  to  the  attention  of  the  citizens  of  Grand 
Rapids  the  importance  of  this  phase  of  their  life  and  work,  and 
second  in  improving  conditions  in  the  city. 

These  general  statements  will  serve  to  introduce  the  survey 
of  the  public  schools.  The  schools  in  their  present  organization, 
the  relation  of  the  business  management  to  the  instructional 
management,  the  character  of  the  teaching  staff,  the  relation  be- 
tween the  various  divisions  of  the  school  system,  and  the  achieve- 
ments of  the  classes  in  typical  aspects  of  their  work,  constitute 
the  problems  which  will  be  treated  in  this  report. 


CHAPTER  I 

THE  TEACHERS 

The  Organization  of  a  Corps  of  Teachers 

A  school  system  depends  very  largely  for  its  efficiency  upon 
the  character  and  training  of  its  teaching  staff.  The  facts  on 
which  to  base  comparisons  of  the  body  of  teachers  employed 
in  the  schools  of  Grand  Rapids  with  teachers  in  other  cities  of 
like  size  are  difficult  to  secure.  It  may  be  said  in  general  that 
American  teachers  are  characterized  by  a  relatively  short  tenure 
of  office,  and  by  a  limited  technical  preparation  for  their  work. 
These  defects  in  the  general  equipment  of  American  teachers 
grow  in  part  out  of  the  rapidly  changing  social  conditions  of  this 
country.  The  attractive  opportunities  offered  by  industry  and 
business  to  the  young  people  of  the  country  have  taken  away 
from  the  schools  the  grade  of  young  men  and  young  women 
who,  two  generations  ago,  taught  school.  The  schools  are  at  the 
present  time  in  sharp  competition  with  the  business  world.  For 
example,  it  is  usually  more  profitable  for  a  young  woman  with  a 
high-school  training  to  take  a  short  business  course  and  enter 
an  office  as  a  stenographer  where  she  will  be  employed  for  the 
whole  year  than  to  go  through  a  normal  school  and  enter  a  school 
system  where  the  long  vacation  deprives  her  of  an  opportunity 
of  continuous  employment.  Furthermore,  the  grade  of  salaries, 
as  has  often  been  pointed  out  in  discussions  of  school  matters, 
is  such  that  the  business  and  professional  opportunities  outside 
of  the  school  are  more  and  more  encroaching  upon  the  teaching 
staff. 

The  difficulty  of  organizing  a  strong  and  permanent  teaching 
staff  is  rendered  serious  also  by  the  fact  that  many  who  enter  the 
teaching  profession  continue  in  the  schools  only  for  a  short  time. 
The  vast  majority  of  the  teaching  force  is  made  up  of  women 
who  ultimately  leave  the  schools  to  be  married. 

Furthermore,  those  who  enter  the  profession  migrate  freely 
from  school  system  to  school  system.  This  migration  has  the 
advantage  of  transferring  new  ideas  from  one  center  to  another, 
but  it  has,  on  the  other  hand,  the  serious  disadvantage  of  break- 


THE  TEACHERS  21 

ing  up  the  organization  of  the  schools  and  interrupting  the 
development  of  consecutive  policies.  Every  business  finds  it 
costly  to  break  in  new  workers. 

Grand  Rapids  has  Teachers  of  Long  Tenure  and 
Technical  Training 

In  spite  of-  these  difficulties  the  teaching  corps  of  Grand 
Rapids  shows  relatively  long  tenure  and  a  relatively  high  grade 
of  equipment.  The  great  majority  of  the  teachers  of  the  Grand 
Rapids  schools  are  experienced,  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the 
conditions  of  their  work,  and  equipped  by  special  technical  train- 
ing- 
Preparation  of  High-School  Teachers  of  Academic  Subjects 

The  facts  with  regard  to  the  teaching  staff  of  Grand  Rapids 
can  be  enumerated  in  several  tables.  The  first  of  these  tables 
deals  with  the  training  of  high-school  teachers  in  academic  sub- 
jects. The  facts  are  reported  in  full  in  Table  IV.  It  will  be 
noted  that  70  of  the  91  high-school  teachers  in  the  city  have 
college  degrees.  Sixteen  more  have  a  normal-school  education. 
For  some  years  the  schools  of  Grand  Rapids  have  been  included 
in  the  lists  of  the  North  Central  Association.  This  Association 
requires  that  all  of  the  teachers  of  academic  subjects  shall  be  col- 
lege graduates.  The  University  of  Michigan  is  also  insistent 
that  the  qualifications  of  teachers  reach  at  least  the  level  of  a 
college  degree.  These  requirements  are  not  made  retroactive. 
Teachers  of  experience  who  do  not  have  degrees  are  therefore 
retained  if  they  are  successful,  but  the  new  appointees  must 
have  degrees.  The  number  should  therefore  continually  increase 
of  those  holding  degrees.  One  feature  of  this  table  which  de- 
serves special  comment  is  the  number  reported  as  having  taken 
graduate  work.  Further  comment  on  high-school  teachers  will 
be  found  in  the  report  of  Professor  C.  O.  Davis  on  secondary 
schools. 

Preparation  of  Teachers  of  Special  Subjects. 

Table  V  shows  the  training  of  the  teachers  of  special  sub- 
jects. This  table  does  not  distinguish  between  teachers  in  the 
high  schools  and  the  elementary  schools.  This  table  shows  a 
fact  which  is  very  general  throughout  the  United  States,  namely, 
the  fact  that  teachers  of  special  subjects  are  not  trained  by  as 
long  a  period  of  study  as  are  teachers  of  academic  subjects.  At 
the  present  time  it  is  impossible  for  even  the  best  school  sys- 


22 


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24  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

terns  to  demand  that  technical  teachers  have  a  complete  academic 
training  in  addition  to  their  technical  training.  Attention  must, 
however,  be  called  to  the  fact  that  the  development  of  the  course 
of  study  is  seriously  impeded  by  the  fact  that  these  teachers  of 
special  subjects  are  very  frequently  not  qualified  to  enter  in  a 
large  and  sympathetic  way  into  the  discussions  of  general  edu- 
cational problems.  The  academic  subjects  are  the  older  subjects 
in  all  schools.  The  members  of  the  faculty  who  have  charge  of 
the  academic  subjects  are  better  trained  and  because  of  longer 
experience  are  more  influential  in  determining  the  policies  of  the 
schools  which  they  serve.  The  newer  subjects  suffer  from  the 
limited  training  of  their  representatives.  Furthermore,  these 
subjects  are  often  sorely  in  need  of  the  kind  of  organization 
which  can  be  worked  out  only  by  teachers  of  better  training. 

Special  Difficulties  in  Securing  Teachers  for 
Technical  Subjects 

Grand  Rapids  has  included  a  generous  list  of  these  special 
subjects  in  its  organization.  It  must  face  two  facts  with  regard 
to  these  subjects.  First,  they  are  expensive.  One  reason  why 
teachers  of  inferior  training  must  be  employed  in  these  courses 
is  that  the  competition  of  business  is  very  much  sharper  here 
than  in  the  case  of  academic  teachers.  A  shopman,  for  example, 
can  usually  earn  in.  the  trades  or  in  the  engineering  profession 
more  than  the  school  can  pay  him  for  conducting  classes.  At 
the  standard  salary  paid  to  the  teacher,  he  continues  to  be  a  shop 
teacher  either  because  he  is  devoted  to  that  type  of  professional 
life  or  because  he  is  inferior  from  the  industrial  point  of  view. 
In  many  cases  the  city  is  paying  for  the  services  of  these  special 
teachers  as  much  as  would  be  paid  for  an  academic  teacher  of 
longer  training. 

In  the  second  place,  not  only  is  the  cost  of  special  subjects 
great  but  the  vigilance  of  the  school  system  in  organizing  these 
newer  subjects  must  be  very  large.  Statements  will  be  made  in 
later  parts  of  this  report  with  regard  to  the  efficiency  of  the 
work  carried  on  in  some  of  these  lines.  It  is  extraordinarily  dif- 
ficult at  this  stage  of  educational  organization  to  determine  the 
degree  of  efficiency  exhibited  in  many  of  the  special  subjects. 
Their  materials  are  not  as  systematically  arranged  as  are  the 
materials  of  the  older  courses.  In  some  cases,  the  materials  are 
not  easily  accessible  to  teachers  and  students,  and  commonly 
there  is  an  absence  of  agreement  as  to  the  best  methods  of  teach- 
ing in  these  subjects.  The  city  must  be  prepared  to  give  some- 
what larger  support  to  the  supervising  officers  of  the  system  if 
the  work  in  these  new  subjects  is  to  be  kept  at  a  high  level. 


THE  TEACHERS  25 

Preparation  of  Grade  Teachers 

Table  VI  shows  the  preparation  of  the  grade  teachers.  It 
will  be  seen  at  a  glance  that  the  great  majority  of  these  teachers 
are  normal-school  graduates.  The  majority  of  them  have  had  a 
full  normal-school  course  of  two  years.  There  is  still  a  danger- 
ous margin  of  teachers  who  have  had  less  than  a  normal-school 
course.  Only  a  very  limited  number  of  teachers  in  the  grades 
have  college  degrees.  The  city  of  Grand  Rapids  is  developing, 
as  will  be  pointed  out  more  fully  later,  a  plan  of  education  which 
includes  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  many  courses  that 
heretofore  have  been  recognized  as  high-school  courses.  If  this 
work  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  is  to  be  administered 
satisfactorily,  the  teachers  who  conduct  these  courses  must  be  in 
their  training  and  equipment  at  least  the  equals  of  the  high- 
school  teachers.  The  showings  of  this  table  for  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grades  make  it  clear  that  this  ideal  has  not  been  reached 
in  any  complete  sense  at  the  present  time. 

The  grades  which  call  for  special  comment  are  the  first 
grade  and  the  sixth  grade.  These  grades  stand  forth  as  con- 
spicuous for  the  limited  school  training  of  their  teachers.  Eleven 
of  the  teachers  in  the  sixth  grade  have  only  one  year  of  normal- 
school  training,  and  seven  have  only  a  high-school  training.  Out 
of  a  total  of  45  teachers  this  is  a  very  large  number  to  have  so 
limited  a  training.  The  first  grade  has  a  somewhat  larger  num- 
ber of  teachers  without  full  institutional  training.  The  deficiency 
in  the  sixth  grade  is  perhaps  more  serious  than  that  in  the  first 
grade  because  of  the  greater  demand  in  the  higher  grade  for 
academic  preparation  for  the  guidance  of  the  older  children. 

Preparation  of  Kindergartners 

Table  VII  shows  the  training  of  the  kindergarten  teachers  of 
the  city.  The  kindergarten  teachers  of  Grand  Rapids  are  sup- 
plied for  the  most  part  by  a  private  kindergarten  institution  in 
the  city.  Grand  Rapids  has  been  progressive  in  its  treatment 
of  the  kindergarten  problem.  In  many  cities  of  the  United 
States  the  kindergarten  is  so  widely  separated  from  the  first 
grade  that  pupils  get  very  little  advantage  from  their  kinder- 
garten training  when  they  enter  on  the  regular  work  of  the 
schools.  Grand  Rapids  has  eliminated  this  difficulty  in  large 
measure  by  appointing  a  single  supervisor  to  take  charge  of  both 
the  primary  and  the  kindergarten  instruction.  It  is  necessary  in 
view  of  this  policy  of  closely  relating  kindergarten  work  and 
first-grade  work  for  the  supervisor  in  the  public  school  system 
to  give  a  good  deal  of  attention  to  the  training  of  the  young 


26 


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THE  TEACHERS  27 

women  who  come  from  the  private  kindergarten  school  in  the 
city.  It  is  regarded  by  the  School  Officers  as  desirable  to  em- 
ploy for  kindergarten  work  the  young  women  who  have  been 
trained  in  the  city.  This  policy  makes  it  all  the  more  important 
that  supervision  and  training  be  in  sympathy.  Under  these  con- 
ditions, it  would  be  wise  for  the  city  to  take  over  in  a  much 
larger  degree  the  supervision  of  training.  The  number  of  kinder- 
gartners  who  are  added  to  the  system  each  year  is  relatively 
small,  but  it  is  of  crucial  importance  that  they  be  trained  in  the 
right  way  to  co-operate  with  the  primary  grades.  There  is  no 
justification  for  a  kindergarten  which  is  an  isolated  part  of  the 
school  system.  Grand  Rapids  has  avoided  this  mistake  so  far 
as  the  treatment  of  the  pupils  is  concerned.  It  ought  to  take  no 
risks  in  the  training  of  its  teachers.  It  is  perfectly  evident  that 
the  present  kindergarten  teachers,  while  they  are  all  high-school 
graduates,  are  being  taken  into  the  system  with  less  advanced 
training  than  other  classes  of  teachers.  Their  training  is  special 
and  technical  in  an  institution  that  does  not  rank  as  a  normal 
school.  Very  few  of  them  have  any  higher  training  than  that 
which  is  given  by  this  institution. 

Experience  of  Kindergartners 

This  statement  with  regard  to  the  kindergarten  teachers  can 
be  re-enforced  by  reference  to  Table  VIII,  which  shows  the 
amount  of  experience  which  these  kindergarten  teachers  have. 
Especially  does  this  table  show  that  the  local  experience  of  the 

TABLE  VIII 

Years  of  Experience  in  Grand  Rapids  (Local)  and  in  both  Grand 
Rapids  and  elsewhere  of  the  Kindergarten  Teachers,  together  with  the 
Number  having  each  Specified  Period  of  Experience. 

Median* 

Total     0-2        3-5       6-10      11-15   16-20  21-25  26-30    31-35  No.  of 
No.    years    years  years    years  years  years  years    years    years 

Local    Experience    ...        .     63          16         12         17  7  5  5  0  1         6.2 

Total    Experience    63         15         12         17  5511         6.5 

*  Median  is  that  quantity  above  and  below  which  half  the  cases  are  to  be  found. 

kindergartners  is  practically  the  same  as  their  total  experience. 
Furthermore,  the  .great  majority  of  them  have  had  a  relatively 
brief  experience.  Indeed,  as  will  be  seen  by  a  comparison  of  this 
table  with  the  tables  immediately  succeeding,  the  experience  of 
this  class  of  teachers  is  the  least  of  any  class  in  the  city.  Espec- 
ially should  the  experience  of  the  kindergartners  as  presented  in 
this  table  be  contrasted  with  the  experience  of  the  primary 
teachers  in  Table  XI.  It  will  then  be  seen  that  the  primary 
teachers,  whatever  the  limitations  on  their  institutional  training, 


28  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

have  had  a  great  deal  more  experience  than  the  kindergartners. 
The  kindergarten  teachers  are  evidently  young  women  selected 
with  deference  to  the  demand  that  residents  of  Grand  Rapids  be 
employed  for  this  division  of  the  school. 

Experience  of  High-School  Teachers  of  Academic  Subjects 

The  next  tables  deal  with  the  experience  of  the  various 
classes  of  teachers  who  have  already  been  discussed  from  the 
point  of  view  of  their  training.  The  impressive  fact  about  these 
tables  is  the  large  amount  of  experience  which  they  show  on  the 
part  of  many  teachers.  Thus  Table  IX,  which  shows  the  length 
of  experience  of  the  high-school  teachers  of  academic  subjects  is 
very  striking  in  its  showing  of  long  tenure  of  office.  Only  twelve 
teachers  out  of  the  89  reporting  in  this  table  have  had  less  than 
five  years  of  experience  in  teaching.  The  table  as  a  whole  shows 
that  the  teaching  staff  of  Grand  Rapids  is  relatively  permanent 
in  its  tenure,  and  it  indicates  that  in  this  degree  the  advantages 
that  come  from  a  permanent  organization  are  found  in  the  school 
system  of  this  city.  The  opposite  type  of  criticism  is  suggested 
by  the  very  long  tenure  which  is  exhibited  in  a  few  cases.  The 
observations  of  the  survey  staff  gave  no  ground  for  the  presenta- 
tion of  this  criticism.  The  probability  that  a  pension  law  will  be 
enacted  in  Michigan  is  of  importance  in  this  connection.  The 
city  of  Grand  Rapids  can  well  afford  to  support  such  a  measure. 
It  will  aid  in  maintaining  the  favorable  type  of  organization 
which  is  exhibited  in  the  table,  while  guarding  against  the 
dangers  of  over-long  tenure. 

One  other  point  may  be  brought  out  in  connection  with  this 
table.  The  local  experience  of  these  teachers  as  contrasted  with 
their  total  experience  shows  that  many  of  them  have  served  for 
several  years  in  other  schools.  This,  when  coupled  with  long 
tenure  is  not  a  disadvantage  to  the  school  system,  because  ser- 
vice in  other  school  systems  will  redound  to  the  advantage  of  the 
Grand  Rapids  schools  by  bringing  to  these  schools  many  sug- 
gestions which  come  from  the  examples  of  other  systems. 

Experience  of  Teachers  of  Special  Subjects 

Table  X  shows  the  period  of  experience  of  teachers  of  spe- 
cial subjects.  The  length  of  experience  of  these  teachers  is  in 
sharp  contrast  with  the  length  of  experience  of  the  academic 
teachers.  The  teachers  of  ungraded  and  defective  children  should 
perhaps  not  be  included  in  a  table  of  this  sort.  They  are  virtually 
elementary  teachers  who  have  been  transferred  to  a  special  func- 
tion. In  any  case,  however,  the  table  shows  that  the  length  of 


THE  TEACHERS 


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THE  TEACHERS  31 

service  of  special  teachers  is  relatively  very  short.  A  full  dis- 
cussion of  the  difficulties  of  organizing  these  special  courses  was 
given  above  and  need  not  be  repeated  at  this  point.  Everything 
that  was  said  at  that  time  is  emphatically  confirmed  .by  this  table. 

Experience  of  Grade  Teachers. 

Table  XI  shows  the  length  of  service  of  the  grade  teachers. 
In  discussing  the  table  showing  the  training  of  grade  teachers, 
comment  was  made  on  the  limited  training  of  teachers  in  the 
first  and  sixth  grades.  It  will  be  seen  from  a  study  of  this  table 
that  a  number  of  the  teachers  in  both  of  these  grades  are  teach- 
ers of  long  experience.  Many  of  them  evidently  are  teachers 
who  entered  the  school  system  at  the  time  when  the  requirement 
was  not  as  high  as  it  has  been  in  recent  years. 

One  other  fact  which  was  pointed  out  in  discussing  the  table 
of  kindergarten  teachers  should  be  referred  to  again.  Teachers 
in  the  first  and  second  grades  are  among  the  mature  teachers  of 
the  system.  As  pointed  out  before,  this  is  in  marked  contrast 
with  the  relatively  slight  preparation  and  small  experience  of  the 
kindergarten  teachers. 

Location  of  Less  Experienced  Teachers 

This  table  shows  very  clearly  where  the  younger  and  less 
experienced  teachers  are  placed  in  the  grades.  The  third  and 
fourth  grades  have  the  younger  teachers  of  the  system.  This  is 
in  keeping  with  the  general  practice  of  schools  all  over  the 
United  States.  In  the  judgment  of  the  present  writer  it  is  a 
very  bad  practice.  Children  in  the  fourth  grade  are  passing 
through  an  important  period  in  their  educational  careers.  They 
have  just  consummated  the  work  of  the  primary  grades.  They 
have  learned  to  read  and  write  and  use  the  fundamental  arithme- 
tical processes.  They  are  now  ready  for  a  new  type  of  training, 
and  they  ought  to  get  this  training  under  teachers  who  can  give 
them  the  very  best  of  attention  and  the  most  skillful  guidance. 
The  fact  is  that  the  middle  grades  in  the.  elementary  schools  all 
over  the  United  States  have  been  treated  as  grades  in  which 
drills  are  to  be  greatly  emphasized.  This  emphasis  on  drill  has 
been  overdone.  With  the  re-organization  which  is  going  on  in 
many  school  system  and  especially  in  Grand  Rapids,  looking 
toward  the  termination  of  the  elementary  course  in  the  strict 
sense  of  the  word  at  the  end  of  the  sixth  year,  it  is  doubly  im- 
portant that  the  fourth  and  fifth  grades  should  be  made  subjects 
of  very  careful  study.  Some  of  the  criticisms  of  the  teaching 
of  reading  which  will  appear  in  the  later  chapter  on  this  subject 


32 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


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THE  TEACHERS  33 

attach  very  definitely  to  this  period  in  the  school  work.  It  is 
important,  therefore,  that  the  teaching  staff  be  improved  at  this 
point.  So  far  as  length  of  service  is  an  accompanying  character- 
istic of  high  technical  ability,  there  should  be  a  change  at  this 
point.  In  any  case,  the  supervisory  officers  of  the  system  should 
give  large  attention  to  this  part  of  the  school  system  just  be- 
cause its  problems  are  difficult  and  the  present  teaching  staff  is 
less  experienced  than  the  teaching  staff  at  other  points  in  the 
schools. 

Experience  and  Training  of  Principals 

Table  XII  shows  the  experience  of  the  principals.  In  gene- 
ral the  principal  of  an  elementary  school  in  Grand  Rapids  and  in 
other  cities  has  secured  his  or  her  position  after  service  as  a 
teacher  in  the  system.  The  result  is  that  in  all  the  school  sys- 
tems of  the  United  States,  the  principals  exhibit,  as  they  do  in 
this  table,  long  periods  of  service.  This  in  itself  is  certainly  not 
objectionable.  It  gives  promise  of  mature  ability  to  deal  with 
school  problems.  Long  experience,  however,  is  a  virtue  only 
when  it  is  accompanied  by  continued  training.  The  table  of  the 
training  of  the  elementary-school  principals  has  been  postponed 
to  this  point  in  order  that  the  contrast  between  the  principals 
and  the  teachers  in  the  schools  might  be  made  as  pointed  as 
possible.  Table  XIII  gives  the  training  of  the  principals  of  all 
the  schools.  The  institutional  training  of  the  elementary  prin- 
cipals is  inferior.  It  ought  to  be  remarked  at  once  that  some  of 
the  prmcipals  have  kept  up  study  during  their  term  of  service,  but 
it  is  legitimate  that  the  demand  for  such  continued  training  be 
made  very  emphatic.  The  problem  of  supervising  a  school 
building  is  a  very  much  more  complex  problem  than  the  prob- 
lem of  giving  instruction  to  a  group  of  children.  Supervision 
calls  for  a  knowledge  of  school  organization  which  is  very  com- 
prehensive. It  is  coming  to  be  recognized  everywhere  in  the 
school  systems  that  supervision  is  not  merely  the  final  stage  of 
teaching.  Jt  is  a  distinct  and  more  elaborate  art.  The  compe- 
tent supervisor  must  know  something  about  how  to  test  the  work 
of  the  children  and  the  teachers  in  the  grades.  The  supervisor 
must  know  how  to  keep  teachers  in  service  actively  engaged  in 
increasing  their  equipment  for  school  work.  All  of  these  de- 
mands point  very  emphatically  to  the  necessity  of  special  techni- 
cal training  for  supervision.  The  principals  of  the  Grand  Rapids 
schools  are  in  many  cases  vigorous,  competent  supervisors.  In 
some  cases  they  are  in  need  of  more  training  than  they  now  have. 

Indeed,  the  point  in  the  school  system  of  Grand  Rapids 
where  a  conscious  effort  to  improve  is  most  urgently  needed  is 


34 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


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THE  TEACHERS  35 

among  the  elementary  principals.  They  need  to  study  the  meth- 
ods of  supervision  which  are  based  on  scientific  tests.  Many  of 
them  have  at  the  present  time  scant  sympathy  with  scientific 
work  in  education.  The  city  has  a  right  to  demand  much  of 
these  principals  which  is  not  included  in  mere  routine. 

Continued  Study  on  the  Part  of  Teachers 

It  may  be  urged  in  general  that  all  teachers  keep  up  their 
studies.  It  used  to  be  thought  of  as  relatively  unnecessary  for  a 
school  system  to  make  the  requirement  that  teachers  continue 
their  studies.  It  was  assumed  that  teachers  had  by  nature  or 
training  such  studious  habits  that  they  would,  without  any  out- 
side pressure,  continue  to  read  and  study  new  subjects.  It  has 
been  discovered,  however,  that  whatever  a  teacher's  training,  the 
school  systems  must  contribute  by  some  legitimate  professional 
stimulus  the  motive  for  strenuous  self-improvement,  which,  in 
the  other  professions,  is  supplied  through  competition.  A  doctor 
and  a  lawyer  cannot  long  hold  positions  of  pre-eminence  in  a 
community  unless  they  keep  up  their  studies  and  thus  keep  them- 
selves abreast  of  the  advances  in  their  professions.  The  teacher 
does  not  encounter  competition  in  the  same  fashion  as  members 
of  other  professions.  Some  explicit  encouragement  on  the  part 
of  the  school  system  must  therefore  be  put  forth  to  encourage 
a  continuation  of  systematic  study  on  the  part  of  all  members  of 
the  teaching  staff. 


CHAPTER  II 

NON- PROMOTIONS  AND  FAILURES 
IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


The  progress  of  pupils  through  the  grades  has  been  a  subject 
of  intensive  study  in  many  of  the  school  systems  of  the  United 
States  for  the  last  few  years.  The  general  method  adopted  in 
making  this  study  is  to  note  the  ages  of  the  pupils  in  the  different 
grades  and  by  a  comparison  of  these  age-grade  statistics  to 
determine  whether  the  children  are  getting  through  the  schools 
in  the  normal  length  of  time  or  are  delayed  in  their  progress 
because  of  failures  or  incidental  difficulties  arising  from  transfer 
or  absence. 

Age-Grade  Tables  Not  Repeated 

Such  studies  of  age-grade  statistics  have  drawn  attention 
to  the  importance  of  devising  in  the  school  system  some  means 
of  accelerating  the  movements  of  students  through  the  grades. 
In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  report  of  the  superintendent  of 
schools  of  Grand  Rapids  has  for  some  years  given  attention  to 
these  age-grade  statistics,  no  effort  will  be  made  in  this  report 
to  recanvass  the  matter  by  that  method. 

The  statistics  published  annually  show  that  retardation,  that 
is  the  holding  back  of  children  in  the  grades,  has  been  progres- 
sively checked.  There  is  still  opportunity  to  improve  the  con- 
ditions for  those  pupils  who  do  better  than  average  work  and 
ought  therefore  to  move  more  rapidly  than  do  the  average.  It  is 
highly  desirable  that  such  strong  students  go  forward  as  rapidly 
as  possible.  The  matter  is  one  which  touches  very  intimately 
all  phases  of  school  work  and  this  report  suggests  that  the  ad- 
ministration organize  a  committee  of  teachers  and  principals  for 
the  study  of  the  possibilities  within  the  Grand  Rapids  system 
of  more  attention  to  the  acceleration  of  pupils.  Most  of  the  find- 
ings of  this  survey  could  be  focused  on  this  general  problem. 


NON-PROMOTIONS  AND  FAILURES  37 

Elimination  of  Defectives 

In  the  meantime  this  report  turns  to  a  complete  account  of 
those  cases  where  the  school  operations  have,  for  some  reason  or 
other,  failed  of  their  normal  goal,  namely,  the  advancement  of 
the  pupils  through  the  grades  at  the  regular  rate  of  one-half 
grade  each  semester.  Whenever  a  pupil  fails  of  promotion,  there 
is  clear  evidence  that  the  school  and  the  pupil  have  not  succeeded 
in  accomplishing  the  task  which  was  set  for  them.  In  some  cases 
the  failure  of  the  child  is  inevitable  because  his  natural  capacity 
is  so  small  that  he  cannot  do  the  work  of  the  grade.  Grand  Rap- 
ids has  made  provision  for  students  who  are  of  such  limited 
capacity  that  they  cannot  carry  on  the  regular  work  of  the 
schools.  A  special  report  on  this  group  of  students  by  Professor 
Charles  S.  Berry,  of  the  University  of  Michigan,  is  presented  in 
a  later  chapter.  The  elimination  from  the  regular  classes  of 
children  who  are  of  abnormally  low  ability  is  a  distinct  advantage 
to  the  school  system.  It  removes  from  the  classes  the  difficulties 
that  arise  through  the  presence  of  children  unable  to  carry  the 
course  of  study,  and  it  provides  for  the  defective  children  a  type 
of  training  better  suited  to  their  needs. 

Reasons  for  Non-promotion    • 

The  remaining  children  in  the  school  system  presumably 
have  a  natural  capacity  which  ought  to  make  it  possible  for  them 
to  go  through  the  course  of  study  administered  in  the  grade  with- 
out serious  delay.  There  are,  to  be  sure,  legitimate  reasons  why 
delay  must  be  suffered  in  individual  cases  even  when  the  child's 
ability  is  normal.  A  child  who  is  sick  during  half  of  the  year, 
for  example,  ought,  in  some  cases,  to  spend  some  time  during 
the  next  following  year  making  up  the  loss.  Some  children  do 
not  work  and  should  be  penalized. 

When  one  has  considered  all  of  the  legitimate  reasons  for 
non-promotion  of  children  in  the  grades,  there  remains  a  very 
considerable  margin  of  failure  for  which  the  school  itself  must 
assume  responsibility.  If  the  course  of  study  is  not  appropriate 
to  the  needs  of  children,  failure  will  result.  This  failure,  while 
it  expresses  itself  in  the  form  of  a  lack  of  interest  on  the  part  of 
the  child  in  the  work  which  he  is  doing,  is  traceable  in  reality  not 
to  any  defect  in  the  child  but  to  a  failure  on  the  part  of  the  school 
to  meet  his  legitimate  requirements  and  his  natural  interests. 
Formerly  the  school  took  the  attitude  that  every  failure  was 
chargeable  to  the  child.  It  was  assumed  that  the  course  of 
study  gave  infallibly  the  best  training  in  every  case.  Students 
of  education  are  coming  to  realize  more  and  more  that  an  inflex- 


38  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

ible  course  of  study  is  not  legitimate  in  a  public  educational 
system  which  requires  the  attendance  of  all  children.  If  the 
law  requires  a  boy  to  go  to  the  fourth  grade,  there  ought  to  be 
some  effort  in  that  grade  to  see  that  he  gets  a  type  of  training 
that  will  be  useful  to  him.  To  be  sure,  there  must  be  a  certain 
degree  of  insistence  that  he  conform  to  the  general  requirements 


-H-t 


Grade    1-2 
l-l 

DIAGRAM 


2-1       2-2 


3-2      4-1  ID  4-2    S5-1       5-2       6-1       6-2 


7-1      p-2       8-1       8-2- a 

1914-15 

1913-14 


I — Percentage    of 
Schools 


Non-promotions    in    each    grade    of 
for  the  years   1913-14  and    1914-15. 


the    Grand    Rapids 


NON-PROMOTIONS  AND  FAILURES  39 

which  have  been  set  up  for  children  of  his  age,  but  this  insistence 
must  not  be  enforced  without  due  regard  to  his  personality  and 
his  future. 

It  is  such  considerations  as  these  that  have  led  superintend- 
ents and  teachers  in  recent  years  to  canvass  again  and  again  the 
course  of  study  and  to  look  for  possible  modifications  which  will 
relieve  the  course  of  undesirable  material  or  bring  in  new  mater- 
ial which  will  make'  the  course  more  productive  for  the  later 
life  of  the  pupils.  A  full  consideration  of  the  course  of  study  will 
appear  in  a  later  section  of  this  report  by  Professor  J.  F.  Bobbitt. 
The  purpose  of  the  present  chapter  is  to  prepare  the  way  for  the 
subsequent  studies  of  the  subjects  of  instruction  by  making  it 
as  clear  as  possible  that  the  school  must  face  as  one  of  its  grave 
problems  every  case  of  failure. 

Percentages  of  Non-promotions  in  the  Various  Grades 

Diagram  I*  shows  the  percentages  of  non-promotions  in  each 
of  the  grades.  The  diagram  should  be  interpreted  as  follows : 
In  two  successive  years  the  percentages  of  non-promotion  in  the 
1-1  grade  were  20  and  19  respectively.  This  large  failure  in  the 
primary  grade  is  to  be  explained  by  the  fact  that  many  children 
enter  school  at  an  age  when  they  are  too  immature  to  succeed  in 
the  work  of  the  school.  Some  of  them  come  from  homes  where 
they  do  not  have  the  preliminary  training  which  makes  it  pos- 
sible for  them  to  take  up  school  work  with  success.  Further- 
more, during  the  earlier  grades  the  defective  children  are  in  the 
process  of  separation  from  the  classes. 

After  the  first  half  year,  the  situation  improves  very  rap- 
idly for  we  find  that  in  the  1-2  grade  the  percentage  of  failures 
has  decreased  to  14  and  13.  In  the  first  half  of  the  second  grade 
failures  are  at  about  the  same  level  as  failures  in  the  last  half  of 
the  first  grade.  In  the  later  grades  there  is  still  further  im- 
provement with  some  irregularities. 

The  irregularities  show  maladjustment  of  some  kind.  Es- 
pecially noticeable  is  the  difference  between  the  two  years  in  the 
treatment  of  the  sixth  grades.  The  striking  difference  between 
the  records  of  the  two  successive  years  calls  for  close  study  as 
does  also  the  difference  between  the  two  years  in  the  III-l 
grade  and  the  V-I  grade. 

The  diagram  as  a  whole  shows  a  relatively  low  rate  of  mor- 
tality. The  evidence  here  and  throughout  the  various  studies  of 
particular  subjects  all  goes  to  show  that  the  schools  are  compar- 
atively successful  with  their  pupils.  There  remains,  however, 

*Full  details  in  these  matters  are  given  in  Tables   XIV  and  XV. 


40 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


a  large  opportunity  for  special  study  of  particular  subjects,  as 
will  be  shown  by  the  later  diagrams  in  this  chapter.  Further- 
more, whatever  the  present  condition,  improvement  is  desirable. 

Failures  in  Reading  and  Arithmetic 

The  significance  of  the  plea  for  improvement  comes  out  very 
clearly  if  the  records  of  failures  in  reading  and  arithmetic  are 
contrasted  with  each  other.  In  order  to  secure  the  material  for 
these  two  diagrams,  the  school  records  were  canvassed  for  all 
of  the  reports  of  failures  in  the  particular  subjects.  If  a  child 
fails  in  one  subject  in  a  -given  grade,  he  is  not  necessarily  held 
back  from  promotion  because  of  that  single  failure.  There  ap- 


Grade  1-1  1-2  2-1  2-2  3-1  3-2  4-1  4-2  5-1  5-2  6-1  6-2  7-1  7-2  8-1  8-2 

1914-15 

—  1913-14 

DIAGRAM  II— Percentage  of  Failures  in  Reading  in  each  grade  of  the  Grand  Rapids 
Schools  for  the  years  1913-14  and  1914-15. 


.NON-PROMOTIONS  AND  FAILURES 


41 


B 


Grade  1-1      1-2      2-1      2-2      3-1      3-2      4-1      4-2      5-1      5-2      6-1      6-2      7-1      7-2      8-1      8-2 

1914-15 

1913-14 

DIAGRAM    III — Percentage    of    Failures    in    Arithmetic    in    each    grade    of    the    Grand 
Rapids  Schools  for  the  years   1913-14  and   1914-15. 


42  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

pear,  therefore,  in  the  records  to  which  we  now  turn  more  fail- 
ures in  particular  subjects  than  non-promotions  in  general  in  the 
various  grades.  These  failures  in  particular  subjects  are,  how- 


Grade  1-1      1-2      2-1      2-2      3-1      3-2      4-1      4-2      5-1      5-2      6-1      6-2      7-1      7-2      8-1      8-2 

1914-15 

1913-14 

DIAGRAM    IV— Percentage    of    Failures    in    Geography    in    Each    Grade    of    the    Grand 
Rapids  Schools  for  the  Years  1913-14  and  1914-15. 


NON-PROMOTIONS  AND  FAILURES 


43 


ever,   of  great   importance   in   determining   the   success   of   the 
course  of  study. 

Diagrams  II  and  III  show  the  percentage  of  failures  in  read- 
ing and  arithmetic  respectively.  The  reading  curve  shows  a 
steady  falling  off  in  the  number  of  failures  in  this  subject  after 
the  II-l  grade.  This  steady  falling  off  in  failures  is  what  we 
should  expect  in  any  subject  which  is  carried  through  the  grades 
and  is  uniformly  successful  in  its  training  of  the  pupils.  Arith- 
metic, on  the  other  hand,  shows  a  very  serious  and  continuous 
succession  of  high  percentages  of  failure  from  the  II-l  grade  to 
the  VIII-1  grade.  Indeed,  there  can  be  no  question  that  arith- 
metic is  the  greatest  single  source  of  failures  in  the  grades  of  the 
Grand  Rapids  schools. 


Grade  1-1      1-2     2-1      2-2     3-1     3-2     4-1     4-2     5-1      5-2     6-1     6-2     7-1      7-2     8-1      8-2 

1914-15 

1913-14 

DIAGRAM  V — Percentage  of  Failures  in  History   in   Each   Grade  of  the   Grand  Rapids 


itage  ot   .failures  in   History   in   £.acn   uraue 
Schools   for   the   years    1913-14   and    1914-15. 


44 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


When  a  course  of  study  produces  the  percentage  of  failures 
here  reported  for  arithmetic,  the  warning  to  school  officers  is 
lou-d  and  clear,  whatever  may  be  the  satisfactory  showing  of  the 
pupils  in  tests.  The  percentages  of  failure  in  arithmetic  show 
that  there  should  be  a  careful  study  of  possibilities  of  revision 
with  a  view  to  bringing  the  subject  nearer  to  the  comprehension 


Grade  1-1      1-2     2-1      2-2      3-1      3-2      4-1      4-2      5-1      5-2      6-1      6-2      7-1      7-2      8-1      8-2 

1913-14 

DIAGRAM    VI — Percentage    of    Failures    in    Language    in    each    grade    of    the    Grand 
Rapids  Schools  for  the  years   1913-14  and   1914-15. 


NON-PROMOTIONS  AND  FAILURES 


45 


of  the  children  in  the  various  grades  or  to  making  it  enough 
more  interesting  so  that  the  children  will  devote  to  it  the  kind  of 
intellectual  effort  that  will  insure  success.  When  a  course  is 
carried  on  at  a  level  where  children  fail  to  the  extent  of  18  to  20 
per  cent  year  after  year,  there  must  be  something  wrong  in  the 
relation  between  the  children  and  the  school  system. 

Failures  in  Other  Subjects 

The  curves  for  the  other  subjects  may  be  commented  on 
briefly.     Geography  is  evidently  a  serious  obstacle  to  the  pro- 


Grade  1-1     1-2     2-1     2-2     3-1     3-2     4-1     4-2     5-1     5-2     6-1     6-2     7-1     7-2     8-1     8-2 

1914-15 

1913-14 

DIAGRAM    VII — Percentage    of   Failures   in    Handwork   in    each    grade    of   the    Grand 
Rapids   Schools  for  the  years   1913-14  and   1914-15. 


Grade  1-1      1-2     2-1      2-2      3-1      3-2     4-1      4-2      5-1      5-2     6-l      6-2      7-1      7-2 


1913-14 


DIAGRAM   VIII—  Percentage   of    Failures   in    Physiology    in    each    grade   of    the    Grand 
Raids  Schools  for  the     ears  1913-14  and  1914-15. 


46 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


gress  of  children  between  the  IV-2  grade  and  the  VII-1  grade. 
In  a  later  part  of  this  report  it  will  be  pointed  out  that  the  read- 
ing taught  in  the  Grand  Rapids  schools  does  not  train  the  child- 
ren in  the  use  of  the  printed  page  as  fully  as  it  should.  The  fail- 
ures in  geography  are  doubtless  to  be  traced  in  many  cases  to 
difficulties  in  reading.  Many  children  do  not  know  how  to  get 
their  lessons  because  their  training  in  reading  has  been  too  form- 
al. In  some  measure  this  same  statement  applies  also  to  the 
difficulties  encountered  in  arithmetic.  Difficulties  in  arithmetic 
are  frequently  due  to  the  fact  that  children  do  not  know  how  to 
interpret  the  problems  that  are  set  down  in  the  book.  The  fail- 
ures in  arithmetic,  and  still  more,  those  in  geography,  make  it 
clear  that  there  are  unsolved  problems  in  the  course  of  study  in 
the  grades. 


Grade  1-1  1-2  2-1  2-2  3-1  3-2  4-1  4-2  5-1  5-2  6-1  6-2  7-1  7-2  8-1  8-2 

1914-15 

1913-14 

DIAGRAM  IX — Percentage  of  Failures  in  Spelling  in  each  grade  of  the  Grand  Rapids 
Schools  for  the  years  1913-14  and  1914-15. 


NON-PROMOTIONS  AND  FAILURES 


47 


History  shows  a  sudden  rise  of  failures  in  the  seventh  grade 
and  in  one  of  the  years  in  the  VIII-1  grade.  In  langauge  we 
have  a  record  which  is  in  some  respects  the  complement  of  the 
record  in  reading.  This  would  seem  to  indicate  the  necessity  of  a 
very  careful  scrutiny  of  the  work  which  is  progressively  required 
of  the  grades  in  language. 

Handwork  and  physiology  appear  to  be  in  a  class  entirely 
by  themselves.  They  are  probably  not  treated  as  very  serious 
requirements  for  promotion.  In  handwork  the  large  amount  of 
supervision  which  is  given  to  the  work  of  each  child  may  help 
to  remove  the  dangers  of  failure  in  the  course. 

The  record  in  spelling  is  interesting.     The  difficulties  here 


Grade  1-1      1-2     2-1      2-2      3-1      3-2     4-1      4-2     5-1      5-2     6-1      6-2      7-1      7-2      8-1      8-2 

1914-15 

1913-14 

DIAGRAM    X — Percentage    of    Conditional    Promotions    in    Each    Grade    of    the    Grand 
Rapids  Schools  for  the  year  1913-1914  and   1914-15. 


48  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

do  not  seem  to  be  as  great  as  in  arithmetic  but  they  continue 
throughout  the  school  course  without  much  relief  from  grade 
to  grade.  There  are  also  some  impressive  irregularities  in  this 
record  from  year  to  year  which  would  seem  to  indicate  that  the 
spelling  course  needs  attention. 

Percentages  of  Conditional  Promotion 

One  important  reason  why  these  failures  in  particular  sub- 
jects do  not  result  in  more  non-promotions  is  to  be  found  in  the 
system  adopted  in  Grand  Rapids  of  promoting  children  on  trial. 
The  technical  formula  is  "promoted  without  recommendation." 
Diagram  X*  shows  the  extent  to  which  promotions  of  this  type 
are  made  in  the  various  grades. 

This  diagram  shows  that  all  through  the  schools  about  one 
child  in  eight,  in  addition  to  those  who  fail  to  be  promoted,  is  in 
trouble  with  the  course  of  study  either  because  his  own  work  is 
deficient  or  else  because  the  course  is  not  adapted  to  his  needs. 
A  study  of  these  cases  of  children  who  are  promoted  on  trial 
show  that  the  great  majority  of  them  ultimately  succeed  in  doing 
the  wrork  of  the  grade  into  which  they  are  advanced.  In  the 
first  semester  of  1913-14  out  of  600  children  only  96  or  16  per 
cent  failed  of  promotion  at  the  end  of  the  semester.  Forty-seven 
per  cent  or  284  were  promoted  at  the  end  of  the  semester  without, 
condition.  One  hundred  ninety-five  of  them  continued  on  con- 
dition but  were  advanced  at  the  end  of  the  semester.  Twenty- 
five  of  them  were  not  reported  upon  fully  because  they  left  the 
city  or  were  lost  sight  of  in  transfer.  In  the  second  semester  of 
the  same  year  there  were  584  children  promoted  on  trial.  One 
hundred  or  17  per  cent  failed  of  promotion  at  the  end  of  the 
semester.  Forty-nine  per  cent  were  promoted ;  30  per  cent  were 
continued  on  condition  and  4  per  cent  were  lost  in  the  calcula- 
tion. Evidently  this  system  of  promotion  on  trial  serves  to  cor- 
rect some  of  the  serious  difficulties  which  arise  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  course  of  study.  Children  are  not  held  back  in 
many  cases  where  there  is  evidently  reasonable  probability  of 
their  meeting  the  requirements  of  the  course. 

Attitude  of  Teachers  on  Conditional  Promotions 

The  attitude  of  different  teachers  in  regard  to  these  trial 
promotions  can  be  discussed  on  the  basis  of  a  questionnaire 
which  was  sent  out  to  all  of  them  asking  for  a  statement  of  the 
grounds,  on  which  they  promoted  students  without  recommenda- 

*Also  Table  XV. 


NON-PROMOTIONS  AND  FAILURES  49 

tion.  They  were  asked  to  indicate  the  considerations  which  in 
their  minds  were  of  first  importance  and  those  which  were  of 
secondary  importance.  Three  hundred  and  seventeen  teachers 
replied  to  the  inquiry.  One  hundred  and  forty  indicated  that  the 
age  of  the  pupils  is  a  major  consideration  in  promotion  without 
recommendation.  Two  hundred  and  ten  indicated  that  the  length 
of  time  which  the  pupil  has  been  in  a  grade  is  a  major  consider- 
ation. On  the  other  hand,  only  three  teachers  regard  deportment 
as  a  major  consideration,  and  only  seventy-seven  regard  the 
length  of  time  that  a  pupil  expects  to  remain  in  school  as  of  im- 
portance. One  hundred  and  thirty-six  indicate  that  general 
scholarship  is  one  of  the  important  considerations  even  though 
failure  appears  in  special  lines. 

Judging  from  these  figures  we  may  say  that  the  child's  age 
and  the  length  of  time  he  has  been  in  school  weigh  with  teachers 
as  direct  reasons  for  advancing  pupils.  This  means  that  when 
the  question  arises  whether  a  child  shall  stay  in  a  grade  for  an- 
other .year  or  go  on,  the  non-scholastic  consideration  of  the 
desirability  of  his  going  forward  with  his  companions  weighs 
heavily.  If  the  judgment  of  the  teachers  is  correct  in  these  cases 
and  if  scholarship  ought  to  be  relegated  to  a  secondary  position 
in  the  discussion,  then  there  is  all  the  more  reason  for  empha- 
sizing the  necessity  of  a  careful  consideration  of  the  course  of 
study.  The  promotion  of  a  child  because  he  has  been  in  a  grade 
for  some  time  can  be  justified  only  if  we  assume  that  he  ought 
to  be  allowed  to  go  on  and  get  a  new  type  of  work  after  he  has 
done  the  best  that  he  can.  Some  teachers  frankly  take  this  posi- 
tion and  some  school  systems  have  modified  the  course  of  study 
administered  to  a  given  child  on  the  explicit  ground  that  pro- 
motion is  a  matter  of  age  rather  than  a  matter  of  scholastic 
achievement. 

Probably  a  compromise  between  the  two  extreme  positions 
represents  the  legitimate  solution  of  the  problem.  A  child  who 
is  growing  old  in  one  of  the  lower  grades  is  certainly  embar- 
rassed by  the  difference  between  his  size  and  maturity  and  the 
size  and  maturity  of  the  other  members  of  the  grade.  If  the 
course  of  study  continues  to  hold  him  back  in  spite  of  his  gene- 
ral normal  intelligence,  probably  the  course  of  study  ought  to^be 
modified.  It  is  much  more  legitimate  to  attempt  a  modification 
of  the  course  of  study  than  merely  to  send  the  pupil  on  ^without 
undertaking  any  changes  in  the  course  of  study  which  will  adapt 
the  work  to  his  needs,  or  to  make  him  go  over  again  under  un- 
favorable conditions  work  in  which  he  has  once  failed. 

There  are  a  number  of  incidental  comments  made  by  the 
teachers  in  reporting  on  the  reasons  for  promotion  without 


50  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

recommendation  which  it  may  be  of  interest  to  reproduce  in  this 
report,  indicating  at  once  the  complexity  of  the  problem  of  pro- 
motion and  the  desirability  of  standardizing  the  judgments  of 
teachers  throughout  the  system.  Several  teachers  report  that  the 
pupil's  attitude  and  effort  at  application  should  be  taken  into 
account  whatever  the  outcome  of  his  work.  Some  call  attention 
to  the  importance  of  giving  children  of  foreign  nationalities  an 
opportunity  to  go  on  even  if  they  do  not  succeed  in  their  work 
because  of  their  lack  of  command  of  English.  In  many  cases 
health  considerations  are  mentioned.  Several  teachers  indicate 
that  they  believe  in  giving  the  pupils  a  fresh  start  by  promoting 
them  in  spite  of  failure.  A  number  of  teachers  take  the  position 
quite  explicitly  that  conditional  promotion  is  not  desirable  and 
that  there  ought  to  be  unconditional  promotion  or  no  promotion 
at  all. 


Need  of  Principles  to  Govern  Non-promotions 

These  statements  serve  to  illustrate  the  necessity  of  a  clearer 
definition  of  the  grounds  of  promotion  or  failure  in  all  of  the 
schools..  Furthermore,  if  we  scrutinize  the  detailed  records  of 
particular  grades  or  even  of  whole  school  buildings,  we  shall  find 
that  there  are  marked  differences  in  the  non-promotions  in  differ- 
ent-parts of  the  city.  Some  of  these  differences  are  undoubtedly 
to  be  explained  by  the  fact  that  the  children  themselves  repre- 
sent different  social  and  intellectual  conditions.  Many  of  the 
non-promotions,  however,  cannot  be  explained  on  this  ground 
and  call  for  a  careful  consideration  on  the  part  of  all  of  the 
schools  of  the  fundamental  principles  that  underlie  non-promo- 
tion. 


Investigation  of  Non-promotion  by  Bureau  of  Census 

The  Bureau  of  Census  and  Statistics  of  the  Grand  Rapids 
schools  made  an  investigation  last  year  of  the  causes  of  non- 
promotion  throughout  the  schools.  The  following  statement 
from  the  officer  in  charge  of  that  Bureau  shows  the  different 
kinds  of  causes  which  were  pointed  out  by  the  teachers. 

"Herewith  I  am  submitting  to  you  results  of  the  first  study  of 
causes  leading  to  non-promotion.  The  study  includes  all  regular  public 
classes  from  1-1  to  VIII-2  inclusive;  and  excludes  all  non-promotions 
occurring  in  ungraded  or  special  classes  of  any  nature  whatever. 

"The  total  number  of  non-promotions  reported  was  1,222.  This  is 
11.23  per  cent  of  the  actual  number  (10,882)  on  the  rolls  at  the  end  of 
the  semester. 

"Of  the  1,222  non-promotions  reported  on  the  class  records,  1,171 


NON-PROMOTIONS  AND  FAILURES  51 

explanations    (96%)    were  available  and  these  are   classified   for   causes 
as  follows: 

"32.80  Ordinary  Dullness 

16.70  Lack  of  Application 

12.40  Sickness 

9.13  Immaturity 

4.50  Kept  at  Home 

4.27  Change  of  School 

4.10  Specific  Ailment  (111  Health  in  School) 

2.80  Foreign  to  English 

2.30  General  111  Health 

2.30  Unwise  promotion 

2.13  Home  Conditions  Discourage  Study 

1.53  Late  Start 

1.53  Wrong  Sort  of  Class,  Course,  or  School 

1.20  Wrong  Attitude 

.90  Timidity 

.68  Overcrowded  class 

.34  Incorrigibility 

.30  Employment 

.09  Discouragement." 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  most  of  the  reasons  here  set 
down  for  non-promotion  hold  the  child  responsible  for  the  fail- 
ure. The  assumption  which  is  implicit  in  this  statement  that  the 
course  of  study  is  certainly  all  right  and  is  adapted  to  the  needs 
of  the  children  is  an  assumption  which  must  be  criticised  as 
beyond  question  over-optimistic.  It  has  been  the  purpose  of 
this  chapter  to  show  this  by  a  comparison  of  the  different  sub- 
jects. This  chapter  ought  to  suggest  to  every  teacher  in  the 
system  such  questions  as  this :  if  "ordinary  dullness"  is  the 
reason  for  most  of  the  non-promotions,  why  does  ordinary  dull- 
ness not  exhibit  itself  in  reading  as  frequently  as  it  does  in  arith- 
metic. Ordinary  dullness  has  curious  ways  of  cropping  out  in 
spots.  It  would  appear  from  the  details  presented  in  this  chapter 
that  ordinary  dullness  is  probably  a  general  category  used  by 
teachers  who  have  not  studied  carefully  the  real  causes  of  fail- 
ure on  the  part  of  the  pupils  in  the  grades. 

Divergencies  in  Practices  of  Schools 

Close  attention  should  be  given  in  each  of  the  schools  to  the 
practice  of  the  school  itself  as  compared  with  the  general  practice 
of  the  whole  system.  Tables  XIV  and  XV  show  the  percentages 
of  non-promotions  and  promotions  on  trial  for  each  of  the  schools 
in  the  city  system.  Several  typical  cases  have  been  selected  and 
are  represented  in  diagrams  XI-XV.  These  diagrams  show  dif- 
ferent levels  of  non-promotion  in  different  schools  and  different 
types  of  treatment  of  the  different  grades.  The  diagrams  will 
doubtless  be  intelligible  to  any  reader  who  has  examined  the 


52  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


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NON-PROMOTIONS  AND  FAILURES 


53 


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54  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


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NON-PROMOTIONS  AND  FAILURES 


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56 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


earlier  diagrams  in  this  chapter.  No  special  comment  is  neces- 
sary in  explanation  of  each  of  the  diagrams.  It  is  suggested  that 
the  principals  ought  to  make  a  careful  study  of  their  own  build- 
ings using  the  methods  here  suggested  and  they  ought  to  confer 
with  their  teachers  until  they  succeed  in  developing  a  well-defined 
policy  which  will  stand  the  test  of  comparison  and  analysis. 


Grade  1-1      1-2      2-1      2-2      3-1      3-2      4-1      4-2      5-1      5-2      6-1      6-2      7-1      7-2      8-1      8-2 


DIAGRAM    XI — Percentage   of   Non-promotions    in    each   grade    of   the    Sigsbee    School 
for  the  years  1913-14  and  1914-15. 


Grade    1-1    1-2    2-1    2-2   3-1  3-2    4-1  4-2    5-1    5-2   6-1    6-2    7-1    7-2   8-1 
1914-15  1913-1 


DIAGRAM   XII — Percentage  of  Non-promotions  in  each  grade  of  the  Diamond   School 
for  the  years  1913-14  and  1914-15. 


Grade        1-1      1-2    2-1     2-2    3-1     3-2       4-1      4-2     5-1     5-2  6-1     6-2    7-1      7-2    8-1      8-2 


DIAGRAM   XIII— Percentage  of  Non-Promotions  in  Each  Grade  of  the  Union   School 
for  the  years  1913-14  and  1914-15. 


NON-PROMOTIONS  AND  FAILURES 


59 


Grade  1-1      1-2     2-1      2-2      3-1      3-2     4-1      4-2      5-1      5-2     6-1      6-2      7-1      7-2      8-1      8  2 

1914-15 

1913-14 

DIAGRAM  XIV — Percentage  of  Non-promotions  in  each  grade  of  the  Lafayette  School 
for  the  years  1913-14  and  1914-15. 


Grade    1-1     1-2     2-1      2-2     3-1      3-2     4-1     4-2     5-1     5-2     6-1      6-2      7-1      7-2 

1913-14  1914-15 


DIAGRAM   XV — Percentage  of   Non-promotions  in   each  grade   of  the   Madison   School 
for  the  years  1913-14  and   1914-15. 


CHAPTER  III 

INTRODUCTION  TO  TESTS 


The  chapters  immediately  following  present  in  detail  the 
results  of  a  number  of  tests  which  were  tried  in  the  elementary 
schools.  These  tests  are  not  in  any  sense  of  the  word  exhaustive. 
They  do  not  deal  with  all  phases  of  elementary-school  work. 
They  do,  however,  select  certain  examples  of  this  work  which  it 
is  possible  to  evaluate  with  a  good  deal  of  precision.  Only  the 
more  formal  phases  of  school  work  are  susceptible  to  quantitative 
evaluation.  The  tests  emphasize,  therefore,  the  formal  elements 
of  school  work. 

It  has  sometimes  been  objected  to  tests  that  they  do  not  get 
at  the  essential  phases  of  instruction.  The  answer  to  this  state- 
ment is  that  long  experience  has  shown  that  the  best  schools 
accomplish  not  only  the  higher  instruction  of  pupils  but  also 
provide  them  with  the  formal  elements  of  all  of  the  subjects. 
Good  schools  always  show  good  records  in  these  tests.  Where- 
ever  there  is  a  failure  to  attend  to  the  details  of  instruction 
there  is  always  an  essential  deficiency  in  the  work  itself.  To  be 
sure  there  are  cases  where  these  details  are  attended  to,  but 
where  the  school  suffers  from  formalism  in  the  instruction.  A 
high  rank  in  a  formal  test  does  not,  therefore,  mean  in  every 
case  excellent  work  in  the  school.  The  tests  in  reading  overcome 
to  a  very  high  degree  the  difficulty  here  pointed  out.  The  results 
of  all  the  tests  are  offered,  therefore,  as  examples  of  what  the 
schools  are  achieving  in  their  classroom  work.  If  these  samples 
of  their  work  are  good,  it  may  be  assumed  that  in  general  the 
work  is  of  a  satisfactory  type. 

In  the  second  place,  the  tests  throw  light  on  the  possibilities 
of  reorganizing  and  enlarging  in  detail  the  instruction  in  the  par- 
ticular subjects  with  which  the  tests  deal.  It  is  hoped  that  the 
suggestions  which  are  offered  in  the  succeeding  chapters  may 
serve  to  stimulate  a  general  consideration  of  the  courses  of  study 
for  the  purpose  of  adjusting  these  courses  in  all  their  stages  to 
the  needs  of  pupils. 


CHAPTER  IV 

READING 

William  S.  Gray 


As  shown  in  the  chapter  on  non-promotion  and  failures,  read- 
ing is  a  subject  in  which  steady  improvement  is  recorded  through- 
out the  grades.  In  testing  reading,  therefore,  we  shall  be  able  to 
determine  not  only  the  degree  of  success  attained  in  this  particu- 
lar subject,  but  we  shall  also  deal  with  a  very  fundamental  part 
,of  the  course  of  study  and  one  which,  in  the  judgment  of  the 
teachers,  is  well  done. 

Furthermore,  the  chapter  on  curriculum  emphasizes  from 
another  point  of  view  the  great  importance  of  reading  as  a  part 
of  the  course  of  study. 

This  chapter  will  be  devoted  to  a  report  on  systematic  tests 
carried  on  throughout  the  grades.  For  this  purpose,  certain 
passages  were  used  which  have  been  carefully  graded  to  suit  the 
abilities  df  school  children,  and  have  been  given  to  pupils  in  a 
number  of  other  school  systems.  A  double  advantage  arises 
from  the  use  of  material  which  has  thus  been  rated  by  previous 
use.  First,  the  material  is  standardized  and,  second,  the  earlier 
studies  yield  comparative  results  which  may  be  used  to  supple- 
ment the  results  obtained  in  Grand  Rapids. 

These  standard  passages  must  be  used,  if  the  results  are  to 
be  exact,  under  conditions  that  are  as  nearly  uniform  as  possible. 
To  this  end  the  principals  were  called  into  conference  and  were 
given  a  demonstration  and  explanation  of  the  tests.  During  the 
week  of  the  testing,  the  writer  circulated  among  the  schools  and 
saw  the  reading  in  the  classes  and  also  observed  some  of  the  test- 
ing. The  tests  were  given  by  the  principals  themselves  and  by 
their  assistants,  usually  in  the  principal's  office  where  the  work 
was  free  from  the  distraction  of  class  work. 

Finally,  it  has  been  shown  in  earlier  studies  made  in  other 
schools,  that  the  distinction  between  oral  and  silent  reading  is  a 
distinction  of  first  importance.  This  distinction  was  observed 


READING  63 

in  the  standard  tests  and  will  be  emphasized  throughout  the 
chapter.  Justification  for  this  distinction  will  come  out  more  fully 
in  later  paragraphs.  For  the  purposes  of  introduction,  it  is 
enough  to  remark  that  the  importance  of  silent  reading  is  not 
recognized  as  fully  as  it  should  be.  In  the  primary  grades  of  the 
elementary  school  special  emphasis  has  usually  been  given  to 
oral  reading.  This  type  of  reading  proves  to  be  appropriate  and 
economical  during  that  period  in  which  the  pupil  is  mastering 
the  fundamental  steps  in  reading.  During  the  intermediate  and 
upper  grades  the  pupil  is  frequently  called  upon  to  read  orally 
in  connection  with  many  class  exercises.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
pupil  soon  learns  to  use  reading  as  a  means  of  securing  ideas  for 
himself  and  he  substitutes  silent  study  for  oral  reproduction. 
During  the  larger  part  of  his  school  life  the  progress  of  a  pupil 
depends  upon  his  ability  to  master  the  thought  of  the  printed 
page  during  periods  of  silent  study.  Furthermore,  under  most 
ordinary  situations  of  life,  one  reads  silently  for  the  purpose  of 
gathering  ideas  and  not  for  the  purpose  of  oral  exhibition.  With 
this  recognition  of  the  very  great  importance  of  silent  reading  it 
is  quite  clear  that  the  quality  of  instruction  in  reading  must  be 
determined  upon  the  basis  of  achievement  both  in  oral  reading 
and  in  silent  reading. 

Tests  in  Oral  Reading 

Oral  reading  tests  were  given  to  4,066  pupils  in  thirty-seven 
schools.  They  were  distributed  among  the  grades  from  the  first 
to  the  eighth  as  follows: 

666  first-grade   pupils 
609  second-grade  pupils 
553  third-grade  pupils 
555  fourth-grade  pupils 
507  fifth-grade  pupils 
494  sixth-grade  pupils 
386  seventh-grade  pupils 
296  eighth-grade  pupils 

The  advanced  section  of  each  grade  represented  in  the  above- 
mentioned  schools  was  tested.  In  general,  between  15  and  20 
pupils  were  tested  in  .each  section.  This  number  is  sufficiently 
large  to  justify  somewhat  rigid  comparisons  between  the  achieve- 
ments of  different  classes. 

The  oral  reading  test  consisted  of  a  series  of  twelve  passages 
arranged  in  the  order  of  increasing  difficulty.  As  each  child  was 
reading  a  record  was  made  of  the  number  of  seconds  required 
to  read  each  paragraph  and  of  the  number  of  errors  which  were 
made  of  the  following  types : 

(a)     Gross  mispronunciations,  which  include  such  errors  in 


64  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

pronunciation  as  indicate  clearly  that  the  word  is  too  difficult 
for  the  pupil  to  pronounce. 

(b)  Minor  mispronunciations,  which   include  the  mispro- 
nunciation of  a  portion  of  a  word,  wrong  accent,  wrong  syllabi- 
cation ,  omission  of  syllables,  etc. 

(c)  Omission  of  words. 

(d)  Insertion  of  words. 

(e)  Repetition  of  words  or  groups  of  words. 

(f)  Substitution  of  one  word  or  group  of  words  for  another. 
Furthermore  the  principals  who  gave  the  tests  made  a  record 

of  the  quality  of  the  reading  in  terms  of  a.  b.  or  c.  If  the  read- 
ing was  very  well  done,  this  fact  was  indicated  by  placing  an  a 
before  the  paragraph.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  reading  was 
very  poorly  done  frpm  the  standpoint  of  expression,  the  fact  was 
indicated  by  placing  a  c  above  the  paragraph.  These  records 
of  quality  show  that  the  time  records  and  records  of  errors  can 
be  relied  on  as  satisfactory  measures  of  the  child's  reading  abil- 
ity. In  nearly  every  case  a  pupil  received  a  quality  mark  of  a 
if  the  paragraph  was  read  at  a  normal  rate  with  not  more  than 
one  or  two  errors.  On  the  other  hand,  as  the  number  of  errors 
increased  and  as  the  rate  decreased  the  quality  mark  which  was 
recorded  was  b.  or  c.  These  results  suggest  that  when  pupils 
read  very  poorly,  the  reason  may  be  sought  in  the  fact  that  they 
are  assigned  material  which  presents  too  many  difficulties  for 
them. 

The  oral  reading  scores  which  are  used  in  this  report  are 
calculated  on  the  basis  of  the  time  required  to  read  a  paragraph 
and  the  number  of  errors  made.  The  reducation  of  each  child's 
record  to  a  simple  numerical  statement  is  based  on  a  system  of 
scoring  which  turns  into  quantitative  terms  the  fact  that  a  para- 
graph should  be  read  in  a  certain  amount  of  time  with  a  limited 
number  of  errors.  If,  now,  the  pupil  exceeds  the  amount  of  time 
which  has  been  found  in  earlier  investigations  to  be  common  and 
if  the  number  of  errors  increase,  the  amount  of  credit  which 
he  gets  for  reading  a  paragraph  should  be  proportionately  re- 
duced. The  total  score  for  an  individual  is  found  by  calculating 
the  total  amount  of  credit  due  the  pupil  on  all  the  paragraphs 
which  were  read.  The  average  class  score  is  found  by  calculat- 
ing the  arithmetical  average  of  all  the  individual  scores  in  the 
class.  A  more  detailed  description  of  the  test  and  of  the  methods 
of  scoring  may  be  found  in  the  Elementary  School  Journal, 
February,  1916. 

The  average  score  for  each  grade  in  which  the  tests  were 
given  appears  in  Table  XVI.  The  median*  and  average  scores 

*The  median  score  is  the  score  of  that  individual  above  and  below  whose  score  lie 
half  of  the  class. 


READING 


65 


for  each  grade  are  indicated  at  the  foot  of  the  table.  These 
average  scores  are  used  as  the  basis  for  comparison  in  the  dia- 
grams which  will  follow. 

One  further  word  of  explanation  is  necessary  in  order  that 
the  diagrams  in  which  the  results  are  presented  may  be  readily 
understood.  Ability  to  read  a  certain  passage  without  error 
means  less  on  the  part  of  the  pupil  in  the  upper  grades  than  on 


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DIAGRAM   XVI— Progress  of  4066  pupils   in   Oral   Reading. 


66 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


the  part  of  a  pupil  in  the  lower  grades.  Grades  must  be  com- 
pared with  each  other,  therefore,  by  recognizing  different  levels 
of  expectation.  These  different  levels  as  determined  from  four 
thousand  tests,  can  be  expressed  graphically  as  indicated  by  the 
vertical  lines  in  Diagram  XVI.  Each  vertical  line  represents 
the  scale  for  a  grade  and  begins  below  at  the  point  where  the 
score  of  10  should  be  represented.  Higher  scores  can  be  repre- 
sented by  appropriate  distances  along  the  vertical  line  above  10. 
In  Diagram  XVI  the  vertical  lines  end  at  the  points  where  the 
score  of  70  belongs  for  each  grade.  The  full  drawn  oblique  lines 
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TABLE  XVI 

AVERAGE  SCORES  IN  ORAL  READING  FOR  37  SCHOOLS  OF 

GRAND   RAPIDS 


First 

Second 

Third 

Fourth 

Fifth 

Sixth 

Seventh 

Eighth 

SCHOOLS 

Grade 

Grade 

Grade 

Grade 

Grade 

Grade 

Grade 

Grade 

Junior    

48 

43 

49 

South   .... 

46 

46 

Union     

28 

32 

48 

42 

50 

45 

48 

48 

Alexander    

12 

42 

47 

42 

47 

45 

44 

Buchanan    

7 

37 

46 

46 

46 

46 

45 

Coit 

53 

47 

47 

51 

48 

Coldbrook   

11 

44 

44 

44 

51 

51 

48 

46 

Congress    

42 

52 

54 

50 

50 

Diamond   

43 

42 

50 

50 

46 

47 

47 

48 

East    Leonard    

54 

47 

56 

47 

55 

48 

50 

41 

Evangeline    

36 

48 

54 

49 

40 

Finney   

40 

39 

Fountain   

45 

58 

53 

56 

56 

Franklin    

6 

40 

47 

44 

47 

46 

40 

46 

Hall    

40 

46 

42 

47 

49 

41 

42 

43 

60 

53 

54 

57 

57 

Ionia    

48 

52 

Jefferson    

17 

47 

47 

51 

53 

53 

48 

Lafayette     
Lexington   

51 

27 

49 
54 

50 
54 

54 
53 

55 
50 

49 
49 

51 

50 

48 
49 

46 

47 

39 

52 

50 

46 

Michigan   ,  

29 

44 

44 

51 

46 

47 

North    Division 

23 

49 

46 

47 

Oakdale  

7 

32 

33 

37 

37 

35 

Palmer  

30 

39 

44 

47 

46 

48 

44 

45 

46 

Pine    .. 

35 

44 

47 

48 

52 

44 

44 

Plainfield       

61 

47 

51 

51 

49 

50 

47 

Sheldon    

12 

44 

45 

49 

48 

44 

Sibley  

31 

42 

53 

54 

51 

45 

Sigsbee    

47 

50 

54 

50 

53 

54 

51 

50 

South    Division    

7 

41 

33 

51 

50 

52 

48 

48 

Stocking    

22 

32 

44 

45 

Straight     

38 

52 

52 

45 

45 

45 

50 

.... 

45 

50 

Turner   

35 

46 

47 

44 

48 

46 

48 

Walker 

62 

41 

West   Leonard  

21 

44 

41 

41 

Widdicomb   

11 

53 

46 

57 

53 

54 

7 

Median     

35 

44 

47 

49 

50 

47 

48 

48 

Average  

35 

44 

47 

49 

50 

48 

48 

48 

READING 


67 


DIAGRAM    XVII— Average    oral   reading  DIAGRAM  XVI II— Average  oral  reading 

score  among  4066  pupils  in  Grand  Rapids,  scores  in  each  grade  in  all  schools  and  in 

2193   pupils   in    Cleveland   and    1106   pupi's  two    selected    schools, 
in   Illinois. 


DIAGRAM  XIX— Average  oral  reading  DIAGRAM  XX— Average  oral  reading 
scores  in  each  grade  in  all  schools  and  in  scores  in  each  grade  in  all  schools  and  in 
two  selected  schools.  two  selected  schools. 


68  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

70.  The  dotted  line  near  the  middle  of  the  figure  represents  the 
average  score  in  oral  reading  of  all  the  schools  in  Grand  Rapids 
which  were  tested. 

Achievement  in  Grand  Rapids  as  Compared  with 
Cleveland,  Ohio 

In  Diagram  XVII  the  average  achievement  in  Grand  Rapids 
is  compared  with  the  average  scores  of  the  largest  single  school 
system  thus  far  tested,  namely,  the  city  of  Cleveland.  The 
diagram  shows  that  in  all  grades  excepting  the  sixth  the  average 
scores  of  Grand  Rapids  are  superior  to  the  corresponding  scores 
of  Cleveland.  This  comparison  becomes  very  significant  by 
making  a  further  comparison  with  the  average  scores  of  six 
grades  of  twenty-three  schools  in  Illinois  which  were  tested  be- 
fore Cleveland.  The  contrast  in  favor  of  Grand  Rapids  is  even 
stronger  than  in  the  case  of  Cleveland.  Furthermore,  the  tests 
were  given  in  Grand  Rapids  three  months  earlier  in  the  school 
year  than  they  were  given  in  Cleveland  or  in  the  Illinois  schools. 
These  facts  indicate  very  clearly  that  the  efficiency  of  instruction 
in  oral  reading  in  Grand  Rapids  is  very  high  indeed. 

Variations  in  Schools 

More  significant  for  the  improvement  of  instruction,  how- 
ever, is  the  comparison  of  the  achievement  of  a  number  of 
schools  with  the  general  average  for  Grand  Rapids  itself.  Such 
internal  comparisons  within  the  system  might  advantageously 
become  a  part  of  the  regular  routine  of  supervision.  In  Diagram 
XVIII  the  achievements  of  Sigsbee  School  and  Oakdale  School 
are  compared  with  the  general  average  of  Grand  Rapids.  The 
diagram  shows  that  Sigsbee  School  does  very  well  in  all  grades. 
The  achievement  in  the  firs.t  grade  is  distinctly  above  the  aver- 
age and  this  superiority  is  maintained  in  general  throughout  the 
grades.  Oakdale  School,  on  the  other  hand,  makes  a  poor  start 
in  the  first  grade  and  fails  to  rise  to  the  general  average  of 
achievement  at  any  point. 

In  Diagram  XIX  the  achievement  of  East  Leonard  School 
and  Widdicomb  School  is  compared  with  the  general  average. 
The  point  of  significance  in  connection  with  this  diagram  is  the 
fact  that  progress  from  grade  to  grade  in  each  school  is  irregular. 
The  type  of  progress  which  is  here  represented  is  characteristic 
of  a  large  number  of  schools,  as  revealed  by  the  scores  in  Table 
XVI.  This  situation  suggests  that  there  is  need  of  a  clearer 
definition  of  the  results  which  should  be  secured.  Such  clearer 


READING  69 

definitions  are  required  in  all  subjects.  They  can  be  worked 
out  only  when  teachers  and  supervisors  come  to  a  full  recogni- 
tion of  the  fact  that  a  school  system  is  properly  organized  only 
when  its  different  units  are  working  together  for  well-recognized 
ends. 

Diagram  XX  shows  similar  results  for  Hall  School  and  for 
South  Division  School.  Hall  School  makes  a  very  fair  start  in 
the  first  and  second  grades,  but  for  some  reason  follows  an  ir- 
regular course  below  the  average  from  the  third  grade  on.  South 
Division,  on  the  other  hand,  makes  a  poor  start  during  the  first 
three  grades  and  then  maintains  a  level  above  the  average  from 
the  fourth  grade  on.  These  results  suggest  that  the  work  in 
the  primary  grades  at  South  Division  School  and  in  the  inter- 
mediate and  upper  grades  at  Hall  School  should  be  carefully 
examined  with  a  view  to  finding  out  the  causes  of  the  difficulties 
in  these  grades. 

These  typical  diagrams  can  be  paralleled  by  a  number  of 
schools  included  in  the  table.  Furthermore,  the  schools  and 
grades  of  the  system  should  be  encouraged  to  work  out  periodi- 
cally similar  statements  of  their  progress  so  that  they  may  check 
up  their  results  and  secure  uniformly  high  results  where  now 
there  is  irregularity  and  at  certain  points  low  achievement. 

Interpretation. 

The  tests  which  were  given  to  the  pupils  of  Grand  Rapids 
have  shown  that  the  results  secured  by  the  city  as  a  whole  are 
very  satisfactory.  Therefore,  whatever  criticism  is  offered  be- 
cause of  failure  to  secure  results  must  be  directed  at  individual 
schools  rather  than  at  the  system  as  a  whole.  In  order  to  deter- 
mine the  causes  of  the  wide  variations  in  the  achievement  of 
various  classes,  seventy-four  recitations  in  reading  were  ob- 
served, and  some  of  the  typical  observations  are  here  recorded. 

One  outstanding  difference  between  the  instruction  of  prim- 
ary classes  relates  to  the  relative  emphasis  which  is  given  to  the 
thought  of  the  selection  and  to  the  mechanics  of  reading  by  the 
teacher.  It  is  commonly  agreed  that  the  problem  of  first-grade 
reading  is  to  gain  a  mastery  of  the  fundamentals.  This  may  be 
done  by  concentrating  attention  upon  the  mechanics  of  reading 
or  by  making  the  mechanics  of  reading  incidental  to  the  mastery 
of  the  thought.  Most  of  the  teachers  of  Grand  Rapids  hold  the 
view  that  it  is  the  better  plan  to  begin  by  making  reading  a 
thought-getting  exercise,  inasmuch  as  pupils  should  associate 
reading  with  thought-getting.  The  teachers  concentrate  atten- 
tion on  the  thought  side,  however,  with  varying  degrees  of  sue- 


70  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

cess.  The  following  observations  illustrate  this  point.  In  one 
school  the  teacher  began  the  lesson  with  the  following  questions : 
"What  were  the  little  people  doing  in  yesterday's  lesson?  To 
what  kind  of  place  were  they  going?  What  do  we  want  when  we 
go  to  a  picnic  besides  a  good  place  to  play?  This  mother  had 
planned  a  surprise  for  her  children.  Study  the  first  page  to 
yourself  to  find  out  what  she  did.  If  you  find  any  hard  words, 
tell  me  what  they  are  and  I  shall  write  them  on  the  boafd  for  our 
study."  Such  directions  and  questions  gave  purpose  to  the 
reading,  stimulated  interest  and  enjoyment,  and  resulted  in 
thoughtful  participation  in  the  study  of  the  lesson. 

The  opposite  kind  of  results  may  be  illustrated  as  follows : 
The  lesson  was  introduced  by  asking  the  pupils  to  look  at  the 
title  and  tell  what  the  story  was  about;  the  new  words  were 
sounded;  each  word  was  worked  out  analytically.  While  this 
method  may  have  resulted  in  the  development  of  some  power  to 
analyze  words,  it  detracted  attention  from  the  thought  of  the 
story,  with  the  result  that  the  pupils  were  not  interested  and  they 
were  inattentive.  The  reading  which  followed  was  lifeless  and 
very  poor,  indicating  that  reading  was  a  mechanical,  un-inter- 
esting  procedure  with  the  class.  The  type  of  drill  which  was 
given  in  this  class  should  be  relegated  to  some  special  drill 
period  in  which  word  study  is  made  the  fundamental  problem. 
Teachers  should  guard  against  destroying  the  pupils'  interest 
in  reading  by  conducting  the  necessary  drill  exercises  during 
periods  in  which  little,  if  any,  reading  is  done. 

Second  and  Third  Grade  Reading 

The  high  average  scores  attained  by  the  pupils  of  the  second 
and  third  grades  may  be  explained  by  the  fact  that  the  pupils  of 
these  grades  have  abundant  opportunity  to  read  orally.  A  large 
number  of  pages  are  read  during  each  recitation.  The  vigor 
with  which  the  pupils  read  and  the  readiness  with  which  they 
attack  new  selections  indicate  that  the  fundamental  phases  of 
oral  reading  have  been  pretty  well  mastered  by  the  end  of  the 
third  grade.  The  variations  in  the  achievement  of  the  classes 
of  these  grades  are  accompanied  by  variations  in  the  spirit  and 
methods  of  the  classroom.  Fountain  School,  which  ranks  very 
high  in  oral  reading  achievement,  has  organized  its  work  with 
great  care.  The  work  of  the  morning  is  known  as  literary 
reading,  at  which  time  considerable  attention  is  given  to  mat- 
ters of  pronunciation,  enunciation,  expression,  meaning,  etc.  In 
the  afternoon  the  pupils  read  primarily  for  information.  This 
reading  is  done  at  sight  in  connection  with  some  problem  in 
which  the  class  is  interested.  At  the  time  that  the  class  was 


READING  71 

visited  they  were  working  on  the  problem  of  how  cotton  is 
grown  and  harvested.  The  pupils  not  only  read  the  story,  but 
contribute  interesting  facts  which  they  have  discovered  outside 
of  the  classroom  and  bring  in  interesting  objective  materials 
which  relate  to  the  problem  at  hand.  At  the  end  of  the  day  the 
pupils  write  significant  sentences  based  on  the  work  of  the  hour 
and  at  the  end  of  the  week  the  pupils  write  stories  based  on  the 
readings  of  the  past  few  days.  By  these  devices  the  information 
to  be  secured  is  kept  foremost  in  mind.  Whenever  it  is  needed 
the  teacher  gives  effective  help  on  difficult  words,  but  she  does 
this  in  a  quiet  way  so  that  interest  and  attention  are  not  taken 
from  the  main  thread  of  the  story.  A  list  is  kept  of  the  words 
upon  which  help  is  needed  and  at  the  close  of  the  exercise  or  in 
some  special  drill  period  these  words  are  emphasized.  This  type 
of  oral  reading  procedure  should  be  introduced  more  widely  in 
the  second  and  third  grades  of  Grand  Rapids. 

In  contrast  with  the  illustration  just  given,  the  reading  reci- 
tations of  some  of  the  classes  which  rank  low  in  the  oral  reading 
test  were  lifeless  and  monotonous.  The  work  of  one  day  did  not 
carry  over  to  the  next.  Attention  was  centered  primarily  on  the 
pronunciation  of  words.  The  recitation  was  constantly  inter- 
rupted to  correct  minor  errors.  The  pupils  read  with  little  in- 
terest and  vigor.  Principals  who  find  this  type  of  teaching  car- 
ried on  by  teachers  under  their  supervision  should  begin  remed- 
ial measures  at  once.  The  teachers  should  be  called  together  to 
discuss  the  problems  of  teaching  reading.  Demonstration  les- 
sons might  be  taught  to  illustrate  certain  points.  Plans  for 
teaching  a  given  lesson  might  be  outlined  and  discussed.  Inas- 
much as  the  teachers  in  a  number  of  the  schools  are  in  need  of 
help,  it  is  recommended  that  a  series  of  conferences  be  carried  on 
by  teachers  of  the  entire  city.  These  conferences  should  form 
a  clearing  house  in  which  the  most  effective  methods  of  securing 
results  in  reading  will  be  demonstrated  and  discussed.  .Further- 
more, a  list  of  the  most  successful  teachers  of  reading  should  be 
made  available  so  that  principals  could  send  their  teachers  who 
are  in  need  of  help  to  visit  recitations  in  reading  in  schools  where 
the  work  is  admittedly  good. 

The  work  in  oral  reading  continues  throughout  the  inter- 
mediate and  upper  grades.  In  connection  with  the  discussion 
of  silent  reading  it  will  be  shown  that  a  part  of  the  time  now 
given  to  oral  reading  in  these  grades  should  be  devoted  to  silent 
reading.  It  is  our  purpose  at  present  to  point  out  two  reasons 
for  variations  in  oral  reading  achievement  in  the  intermediate 
grades. 


72  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

Fourth,  Fifth  and  Sixth  Grade  Reading 

In  many  of  the  classes  which  rank  low  there  was  clear  evi- 
dence that  the  teacher  had  made  no  specific  preparation  for 
teaching  that  particular  lesson,  depending  in  a  vague  general 
way  for  the  day's  work  on  her  own  ability  to  read  and  on  her 
previous  contact  with  the  selection.  The  purpose  of  the  recita- 
tion was  in  these  cases  general  and  hence  vague.  Errors  were 
indeed  corrected  and  a  few  suggestions  were  offered  concerning 
the  thought  of  the  selection.  Whatever  comments  were  made 
by  the  teacher  came  to  her  mind  apparently  at  the  moment  they 
were  offered.  These  suggestions  dealt  with  details  and  failed 
to  bring  into  prominence  the  larger  and  more  significant  points 
of  the  lesson.  Recitations  conducted  in  this  way  do  not  give 
enough  positive  instruction.  To  be  guided  primarily  by  the 
demand  that  errors  be  corrected  is  in  reality  to  be  dominated  by 
a  negative  aim.  Teachers  who  worked  with  a  vague  purpose 
failed  to  realize  that  some  selections  should  be  read  quickly  to 
enjoy  the  story,  while  other  selections  should  be  read  with  a 
greater  amount  of  care  to  determine  the  major  points  and  the 
supporting  details,  to  weigh  the  relative  value  of  the  various 
points  of  the  lesson,  to  get  the  finer  meanings  of  certain  pas- 
sages, or  to  appreciate  certain  descriptions  and  allusions.  Un- 
less a  teacher  makes  definite  preparation  before  the  reading 
exercise,  it  is  almost  certain  that  she  will  not  appreciate  the 
most  significant  points  of  the  lesson  and  she  will  not  be  able 
to  direct  the  thought  of  the  pupils  along  the  most  profitable  lines. 
A  comparison  of  the  scores  which  were  received  by  various 
classes  with  the  notes  which  were  made  while  visiting  recitations 
in  reading  reveals  the  fact  that  there  is  close  correlation  between 
low  scores  on  the  one  hand  and  poor  preparation  and  lack  of  pur- 
pose by  the  teacher  on  the  other. 

Another  noticeable  difference  between  the  work  of  schools 
which  ranked  high  and  schools  which  ranked  low  relates  to  the 
motive  or  purpose  which  stimulated  the  pupils.  In  two  of  the 
better  schools  effective  results  in  oral  reading  were  secured  as 
follows :  One  fifth-grade  class  secures  good  oral  reading  in 
connection  with. its  civic  club.  Thirty  minutes  are  spent  each 
week  in  a  meeting  of  the  club.  Members  are  expected  to  choose 
selections  which  are  appropriate  for  the  program  of  the  day  and 
to  read  them  before  the  group.  Each  pupil  has  a  real  purpose 
for  reading  and  the  audience  situation  which  confronts  him  calls 
forth  his  best  efforts.  Although  far  less  time  is  devoted  to  oral 
reading  in  this  school  than  in  many  other  schools,  the  results 
are  superior  throughout.  It  seems  reasonable  to  assume  that  the 
pupil  who  puts  forth  his  best  efforts  in  a  thorough  preparation 


READING  73 

of  one  selection  which  he  will  read  with  a  real  purpose  will  make 
more  progress  than  the  pupil  who  reads  several^  selections  in  a 
half-hearted  way.  In  a  second  school  the  pupils  read  several 
pages  to  determine  the  answer  to  a  problem  which  has  been  held 
over  from  the  preceding  lesson.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  study 
period  the  pupils  participated  in  a  lively  discussion  of  the 
question  at  issue.  Pupils  differed  frequently  during  the  discus- 
sion. They  had  been  trained  to  refer  to  the  text  under  such  con- 
ditions and  to  read  to  the  class  the  statements  which  supported 
their  point  of  view.  Several  parts  of  the  selection  were  read  a 
number  of  times,  but  each  time  the  pupil  who  read  had  a  definite 
purpose  and  he  read  effectively. 

In  contrast  with  the  vigorous  reading  exercises  just  de- 
scribed a  number  of  uninteresting,  lifeless  recitations  were  ob- 
served. In  one  class  the  pupils  were  reading  the  story  of  Ulysses. 
After  each  paragraph  had  been  read,  several  questions  were  asked 
to  determine  whether  or  not  the  pupil  had  understood  the  pas- 
sage. Two  or  three  pupils  were  then  asked  to  re-read  the  same 
passage.  The  teacher  gave  her  chief  attention  to  the  correction 
of  such  errors  as  "peaceful"  for  "peacable."  After  ten  minutes  of 
this  type  of  exercise  the  class  had  read  only  three  paragraphs 
and  it  is  needless  to  say  the  pupils  had  lost  all  interest  in  the 
recitation.  Oral  reading  of  the  type  just  described  accomplishes 
very  little  for  pupils  of  the  intermediate  grades. 

Seventh  and  Eighth  Grade  Reading 

The  conception  of  reading  as  an  oral  exercise  is  largely  ac- 
cepted in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades.  This  view  will  be  criti- 
cized in  connection  with  the  discussion  of  silent  reading.  It  is 
to  be  said  here  that  the  oral  exercises  are  usually  taken  up  as 
follows.  The  selections  are  first  studied  silently.  Questions  are 
then  asked  about  the  words.  Later  the  selections  are  read  and 
discussed.  Some  of  these  exercises  proved  to  be  very  effective. 
They  were  characterized  by  interest,  and  earnest  endeavor  was 
apparent  on  the  part  of  the  pupils.  In  many  instances,  however, 
the  discussions  became  too  detailed  and  analytic.  In  one  class 
which  was  reading  about  Washington  the  following  questions 
were  asked:  "Who  was  Washington?  Who  wrote  this  story? 
Who  was  Jefferson?"  Several  words  which  had  been  listed  on 
the  board  were  pronounced  at  this  point.  Eight  or  ten  lines 
were  then  read  silently,  followed  by  these  questions:  "Name 
three  things  which  were  told  about  Washington.  (The  final 
answer  secured  was,  'He  had  a  good  mind,  great  power  of  pene- 
tration, and  good  judgment/)  What  is  the  difference  between 
mind  and  judgment?  What  is  the  connection  between  judicious- 


74  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

/y  and  judgment?  What  part  of  speech  is  judiciously?"  After 
eight  minutes  spent  in  this  way  the  teacher  was  forced  to  turn  to 
another  lesson  because  the  pupils  were  entirely  lost. 

Tests  in  Silent  Reading 

At  the  same  time  that  the  pupils  were  tested  in  oral  reading, 
they  were  also  tested  in  silent  reading.  The  silent  reading  test 
was  omitted  in  the  case  of  first-grade  pupils.  After  the  oral 
reading  test  had  been  completed  by  a  pupil,  new  passages  were 
used  for  the  silent  reading  tests.  The  tester  recorded  in  this 
case  the  rate  of  reading.  By  means  of  written  reproductions  of 
what  was  read  and  by  answers  to  questions  concerning  the 
subject-matter  of  the  test,  the  pupil  gave  evidence  as  to  his  com- 
prehension of  what  he  had  read.  Three  selections  were  used  in 
the  silent  reading  test  in  order  to  suit  the  subject-matter  to  the 
maturity  of  the  pupils  of  the  different  grades.  The  easiest 
selection,  entitled  "Tiny  Tad",  was  read  by  pupils  of  the  second 
and  third  grades.  The  second  selection,  entitled  "The  Grass- 
hoppers", was  read  by  pupils  of  the  fourth,  fifth  and  sixth  grades, 
and  the  hardest  selection,  entitled  "Ancient  Ships",  was  read 
by  the  pupils  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades.  The  relative 
difficulty  of  these  selections  had  been  previously  determined  by 
tests  given  to  2654  pupils  in  thirteen  cities. 

The  Rate  of  Silent  Reading 

The  average  rate  at  which  a  class  reads  silently  was  deter- 
mined by  finding  the  average  number  of  seconds  required  by  a 
class  to  read  one  hundred  words.  This  result  was  then  expressed 
in  terms  of  the  number  of  words  read  per  second.  The  average 
rate  at  which  each  class  that  was  tested  read  is  shown  in  Table 
XVII.  The  median  and  average  rates  for  each  grade  are  indi- 
cated at  the  foot  of  the  table.  The  average  rate  by  grades  was 
found  by  determining  the  average  number  of  seconds  required 
by  all  pupils  of  a  given  grade  to  read  one  hundred  words.  This 
result  was  then  expressed  in  terms  of  the  number  of  words  read 
per  second. 

The  rate  at  which  pupils  of  Grand  Rapids  read  is  compared 
with  the  rate  at  which  pupils  of  other  cities  read  in  Diagram 
XXI.  Since  three  selections  were  used  in  the  silent  reading 
test,  a  readjustment  has  been  necessary  in  the  diagram.  The 
points  of  this  readjustment  are  between  the  third  and  ^ fourth 
grades,  and  between  the  sixth  and  seventh  grades.  In  Diagram 
XXI,  dotted,  vertical  lines  are  drawn  at  each  of  these  points. 


READING 


75 


TABLE  XVII 

AVERAGE  RATES  IN  SILENT  READING  FOR  37  SCHOOLS  OF 

GRAND   RAPIDS 


SCHOOLS 

Junior  

South    

Union  

Alexander    

Buchanan    

Coit  

Coldbrook   

Congress    

Diamond    

East    Leonard    

Eyangeline 

Finney   

Fountain    

Franklin 

Hall    '.'.'. .... 

Henry  

Ionia 

Jefferson    

Lafayette  

Lexington   

Madison  

Michigan   

North    Division    

Oakdale   

Palmer  ... 


Pine    

Plainfield   

Sheldon    

Sibley  

Sigsbee    

South  Division 

Stocking    

Straight   , 


Second 

Third 

Fourth 

Fifth 

Sixth 

Seventh 

Eighth 

Grade 

Grade 

Grade 

Grade 

Grade 

Grade 

Grade 

2.86 

2  81 

3.03 

2.78 

2.94 

1.02 

1.75 

1.85 

2.63 

2.44 

2.56 

2.50 

1.54 

2.50 

2.27 

2.13 

2.70 

2.27 

1.09 

2.13 

1.82 

2.04 

2.18 

2.33 

77 

1.25 

1.64 

2.44 

2.13 

1.72 

1.96 

2.94 

3.33 

3.33 

3.33 

2.70 

1.66 

2.70 

2.80 

2.77 

1.67 

1.69 

2.38 

2.33 

2.70 

1.96 

2.63 

1.35 

2.78 

2.56 

4.00 

3.70 

2.18 

2.78 

.41 

1.85 



3.12 

3.45 

3.85 

3.45 

2.17 

2.56 

4  16 

1.25 

2.58 

2.30 

2.94 

2.77 

2.22 

2.63 

1.43 

2.00 

2.38 

2.22 

2.56 

1.92 

2.44 

2.22 

2.50 

2.38 

2.86 

1.82 

2.33 

1.75 

2.08 

1.92 

1.79 

3.03 

1.82 

1.58 

2.27 

2.43 

3.33 

3.84 

2.85 

175 

1.78 

2.64 

2.09 

2.68 

3.21 

3.49 

3.37 

2.22 

2.77 

2.43 

2.77 

2.85 

1.96 

2.63 

2.44 

2.13 

2.70 

1.89 

1.79 

2.13 

.76 

1.28 

1.87 

l"92 

2.13 

1.49 

2.00 

2.33 

3.12 

2.77 

2785 

2785 

2.63 

1.20 

1.87 

2.15 

2.86 

2.22 

2.63 

1.56 

2.38 

2.04 

2.08 

2.22 

1.39 



1.35 

1.82 

2.17 

2.56 

2.17 





1.32 

2.33 

2.33 

2.86 

2.86 

1.59 

2.44 

1.85 

2.56 

3.33 

2.94 

3."03 

1.35 

1.52 

2.04 

2.63 

2.94 

2.78 

2.04 

1.60 

2.17 

1.79 

1.88 

2.63 

1.85 

2.37 

3.57 

2."85 

2.27 

1.67 

2.78 

2.04 

2.63 

2.86 

2.86 



1.16 

1.61 

1.61 

2.50 





1.92 

1.92 

2.78 

2.5Q 

3.70 

1.59 

2.17 

2.28 

2.63 

2.86 

2.'78 

2.74 

1.58 

2.20 

2.30 

2.63 

2.85 

2.72 

2.78 

Turner    .. 

Walker    77777" 

West   Leonard  

Widdicomb   

Median  

Average    (All   Cases). 


The  numbers  at  the  left  of  the  diagram  indicate  the  number  of 
words  read  per  second  in  the  easy  selection.  The  numbers  on 
the  line  between  the  third  and  fourth  grades  indicate  the  equiva- 
lent number  of  words  read  per  second  when  the  second  more 
difficult  passage  was  used,  and  the  numbers  on  the  line  between 
the  sixth  and  seventh  grades  indicate  the  equivalent  rates  for 
the  most  difficult  selection. 

The  diagram  shows  that  the  rate  at  which  the  pupils  of 
Grand  Rapids  read  silently  is  very  similar  to  the  rate  at  which 
the  pupils  of  thirteen  cities  read,  but  is  somewhat  lower  than 
the  average  Cleveland  rate.  Inasmuch  as  the  record  for  Grand 
Rapids  compares  so  favorably  with  the  record  for  thirteen  cities, 
it  would  seem  that  this  phase  of  reading  achievement  has  been 
fairly  well  provided  for  in  the  instruction  which  Grand  Rapids 


DIAGRAM  XXI— Average  Rates  in  Silent  Reading  among  3399  pupils  in  Grand  Rapids, 
among  1831  pupils  in  Cleveland  and  among  2654  pupils  in  thirteen  other  cities. 


(f 


DIAGRAM  XXII — Average  Rates  in^  Silent  Reading  in  each  grade  in  all  schools  and  in 
each  grade  in  three  selected  schools. 


READING  77 

gives  to  its  pupils.  On  the  other  hand,  very  little  attention  has 
been  given  in  classroom  instruction  to  the  problem  of  rate  in 
silent  reading.  As  better  methods  are  worked  out  for  securing 
more  effective  results  in  this  phase  of  reading  achievement,  it 
may  be  found  that  our  standards  are  far  too  low  at  present.  The 
fact  that  Cleveland  secured  results  which  are  distinctly  superior 
to  the  scores  for  Grand  Rapids  leads  to  the  conclusion  that 
Grand  Rapids  should  by  no  means  feel  self-satisfied  with  its 
average  results. 

Diagram  XXII  presents  some  of  the  variations  which  are 
found  in  particular  schools  in  Grand  Rapids.  Oakdale  School 
ranks  very  low  in  rate  of  silent  reading.  Coldbrook  School  and 
Lexington  School,  on  the  other  hand,  although  making  records 
which  are  slightly  below  the  average  in  certain  grades,  make 
records  which  are  distinctly  above  the  average  in  most  grades. 
A  careful  study  of  Diagram  XXII  and  of  Table  XVII  shows  that 
there  are  a  number  of  schools  which  should  give  considerable 
attention  to  the  problem  of  rate  in  silent  reading.  In  some 
schools  this  need  is  apparent  throughout  the  grades ;  in  other 
schools  this  need  is  most  apparent  in  connection  with  certain 
grades.  The  fact  that  some  schools  attain  very  high  rates 
throughout  the  grades  indicates  the  possibility  that  the  general 
average  for  the  city  as  a  whole  might  be  made  much  higher  if 
the  proper  amount  of  attention  were  directed  to  this  problem. 

Quality  of  Silent  Reading 

The  scores  for  quality  of  silent  reading  are  based  on  the 
ability  of  the  pupil  to  reproduce  what  was  read  and  to  answer 
questions  concerning  the  subject-matter  of  the  test.  The  aver- 
age quality  score  for  each  class  tested  is  given  in  Table  XVIII. 
The  median  and  average  scores  for  each  grade  appear  at  the  foot 
of  the  table.  The  average  scores  for  all  the  pupils  of  each  grade 
have  been  adopted  for  use  in  making  comparisons. 

The  average  quality  scores  for  Grand  Rapids,  Cleveland, 
and  thirteen  other  cities  are  compared  in  Diagram  XXIII.  The 
same  readjustments  appear  in  this  diagram  which  were  described 
in  connection  with  the  diagrams  for  rate  of  silent  reading.  The 
diagram  shows  that  above  the  third  grade  the  records  made  by 
the  pupils  in  Grand  Rapids  follow  closely  and  are  slightly  above 
the  records  made  by  Cleveland  pupils.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
records  for  Grand  Rapids  are  distinctly  lower  than  the  records 
made  by  thirteen  other  cities  with  the  exception  of  the  seventh 
grade  records.  The  unusually  high  scores  made  by  the  pupils 
of  the  second  and  third  grades  can  be  easily  accounted  for  as 


78  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

TABLE  XVIII 

AVERAGE  QUALITY  SCORE  IN  SILENT  READING  FOR  37 
SCHOOLS  IN  GRAND  RAPIDS 


SCHOOLS 

Second 
Grade 

Third 
Grade 

Fourth 
Grade 

Fifth 
Grade 

Sixth 
Grade 

Seventh 
Grade 

Eighth 
Grade 

Union  

28 

24 

26 

South    

20 

25 

Junior 

17 

40 

15 

33 

31 

28 

27 

Alexander    

28 

40 

15 

17 

35 

26 

Buchanan    

28 

40 

17 

31 

26 

22 

Coit 

41 

43 

12 

24 

Coldbrook    

31 

40 

17 

25 

28 

19 

26 

33 

39 

32 

24 

Diamond    

23 

31 

19 

25 

31 

19 

24 

East    Leonard    

36 

50 

28 

27 

22 

32 

34 

Evangeline    

25 

27 

28 

29 

32 

Finney    

Fountain   .. 

32 

49 

34 

44 

Franklin     

31 

43 

15 

25 

35 

24 

42 

Hall 

35 

49 

26 

36 

35 

28 

23 

Henry     

39 

44 

18 

24 

Ionia  :  

27 

48 

Jefferson    . 

28 

36 

14 

20 

29 

20 

Lafayette  

39 

43 

20 

33 

30 

33 

46 

47 

49 

24 

32 

31 

20 

23 

Madison  

35 

43 

26 

30 

39 

Michigan   

35 

41 

33 

24 

28 

North    Division    -.  

33 

35 

15 

Oakdale   

34 

39 

18 

17 

26 

Palmer  

32 

44 

16 

21 

26 

18 

26 

39 

Pine    .. 

34 

41 

15 

27 

30 

31 

Plainfield  

39 

39 

23 

29 

36 

34 

Sheldon    

24 

41 

17 

30 

34 

Sibley  

33 

36 

15 

25 

23 

Sigsbee     

47 

55 

21 

33 

41 

21 

22 

South  Division  .,  

28 

34 

21 

37 

31 

19 

24 

Stocking    

23 

30 

13 

Straight    

34 

29 

12 

20 

23 

21 

23 

Turner    .. 

40 

36 

17 

24 

36 

25 

Walker  

56 

35 

34 

13 

Widdicomb    

45 

42 

8 

21 

34 

Median  

33 

40 

17 

25 

30 

24 

26 

Average    (All   Cases)  

32 

40 

19 

25 

31 

24 

27 

follows.  The  teachers  giving  the  tests  wrote  the  reproduction 
and  answers  to  questions  for  the  pupils  of  the  second  and  third 
grades.  The  pupils  in  grades  above  the  third  wrote  their  own 
reproductions.  The  written  reproductions  received  from  a  num- 
ber of  second  and  third-grade  classes  show  clearly  the  influence 
of  the  teacher  who  gave  the  test.  The  English  in  these  repro- 
ductions is  superior  to  the  English  used  by  pupils  of  these 
grades.  The  thought  is  reproduced  more  fully  than  has  been 
found  to  be  the  case  with  most  pupils  of  these  grades.  The 
questions  are  answered  with  a  degree  of  precision  which  excels 
the  written  work  of  pupils  in  more  advanced  grades.  It  is  to  be 
regretted  that  this  error  has  crept  into  the  results  as  it  makes 
any  comparison  among  second  and  third-grade  classes  invalid. 
It  should  be  added,  however,  that  many  of  the  second  and  third 


READING 


79 


DIAGRAM  XXIII — Average  quality  scores  among  3399  pupils  in  Grand  Rapids,  among 
1831    pupils   in    Cleveland   and   among   2654   pupils    in    thirteen   other   cities. 


DIAGRAM  XXIV — Average  quality  scores  in  silent  reading  in  each  grade  in  all  schools 
and  in  each  grade  in  three  selected  schools. 


80  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

grade  reproductions  were  copied  with  a  high  degree  of  accuracy 
as  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  sentences  copied  were  characteristic 
of  pupils  of  these  grades. 

A  careful  study  of  the  quality  scores  for  Grand  Rapids  re- 
veals the  fact  that  the  record  for  the  city  as  a  whole  is  not  only 
relatively  low,  but  that  the  growth  in  individual  schools  is  er- 
ratic and  fails  to  show  steady  progress.  In  Diagram  XXIV  an 
unusual  drop  between  the  fourth  and  fifth  grades  is  represented 
in  the  curve  for  Michigan  School.  A  similar  drop  is  represented 
between  the  fifth  and  sixth  grades  in  the  curve  for  South  Divi- 
sion School.  When  one  contrasts  such  progress  with  the  steady 
growth  revealed  by  the  record  for  Diamond  School,  one  is  forced 
to  question  the  consistency  of  the  instruction  which  these  pupils 
receive  from  grade  to  grade.  In  Diagram  XXV,  fairly  constant 
progress  in  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  grades  is  shown  in  the 
records  for  Turner,  Sigsbee,  and  Straight  Schools.  In  Diagram 
XXVI,  on  the  other  hand,  an  entirely  different  type  of  progress 
is  shown  for  these  same  grades.  Such  records  indicate  that  there 
is  urgent  need  that  the  problem  of  securing  effective  results  in 
the  silent  interpretation  of  printed  material  be  given  immediate 
attention. 

The  conclusions  which  have  been  reached  as  a  result  of  the 
objective  study  of  silent  reading  achievement  may  be  summar- 
ized as  follows.  The  progress  in  rate  of  silent  reading  for  the 
city  as  a  whole  is  to  be  compared  favorably  with  that  shown  in 
other  cities.  In  individual  schools  and  classes  there  is  need  for 
greater  emphasis  and  more  consistent  effort  on  this  phase  of 
silent  reading.  In  general,  there  is  a  possibility  of  improvement 
in  rate  of  silent  reading  which  has  not  been  fully  realized  any- 
where. The  record  in  quality  of  silent  reading  is  relatively  low 
for  the  city  as  a  whole,  particularly  in  the  fourth,  fifth,  and 
sixth  grades.  The  erratic  character  of  the  progress  throughout 
these  grades  indicates  that  the  methods  of  securing  results  in 
this  phase  of  reading  achievement  are  less  well  worked  out  than 
is  true  in  the  case  of  oral  reading  achievement  or  rate  of  silent 
reading.  When  one  compares  the  very  satisfactory  results  se- 
cured in  oral  reading  with  the  inferior  and  erratic  results  secured 
in  silent  reading,  it  stands  out  with  perfect  clearness  that  there 
is  need  of  changing  the  relative  emphasis  given  to  oral  reading 
and  to  silent  reading  by  the  teachers  of  Grand  Rapids. 

Interpretation 

The  distinction  between  oral  reading  and  silent  reading  has 
purposely  received  considerable  emphasis  in  this  report.  Al- 
though this  distinction  has  not  been  kept  prominently  before 


DIAGRAM    XXV — Average    Quality    Scores    in    Silent    Reading    in    each    grade    in    four 

selected    schools. 


DIAGRAM   XXVI — ^Average   Quality   Scores   in   Silent   Reading  in   each   grade  in   three 

selected  schools. 


82  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

the  minds  of  teachers  in  the  past,  the  increasing  recognition  of 
the  value  of  silent  reading  makes  it  necessary  that  teachers  give 
this  problem  constant  consideration.  It  was  shown  in  the  earlier 
part  of  this  report  that  Grand  Rapids  secures  effective  results  in 
teaching  oral  reading.  The  fact  that  silent  reading  habits  are 
less  effectively  established  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  a  portion 
of  the  time  and  effort  now  given  to  oral  reading  should  be  di- 
rected to  silent  reading.  In  order  to  determine  at  just  what 
points  in  the  grades  this  change  of  emphasis  should  take  place, 
it  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  certain  well-established  facts. 

When  second  and  third-grade  pupils  have  acquired  as  much 
mastery  of  the  mechanics  of  reading  as  have  the  pupils  of  Grand 
Rapids,  they  are  able  to  pronounce  words  which  are  quite  be- 
yond their  comprehension.  Whenever  pupils  have  reached  this 
stage  in  their  development,  additional  mastery  of  word  pronunci- 
ation is  less  important  than  increased  mastery  of  meanings. 
These  meanings  are  best  secured  by  coming  in  contact  with 
words  and  sentences  time  after  time,  until  a  body  of  meaning  is 
built  up  in  regard  to  these  words.  The  large  amount  of  atten- 
tion which  the  teachers  of  many  second  and  third-grade  classes 
of  Grand  Rapids  give  to  quantitative  reading  with  emphasis 
upon  the  thought  side,  is  a  long  step  in  the  right  direction. 

Furthermore,  a  pupil  in  the  first  grade  is  able  to  pronounce 
words  more  rapidly  than  he  is  able  to  recognize  them,  but  dur- 
ing the  second  and  third-grade  his  rate  of  word  recognition 
reaches  or  surpasses  his  rate  of  word  pronunciation.  By  the 
time  the  pupil  reaches  the  fourth  grade  he  has  mastered  the  art 
of  oral  reading  well  enough  to  use  it  intelligently.  The  result  is 
that  he  begins  to  read  much  more  rapidly  than  during  the  prim- 
ary grades.  He  becomes  interested  in  the  subject-matter  and 
because  his  vocal  chords  react  slowly,  he  lets  his  eyes  run  along 
the  lines  without  supervising  the  vocal  chord  reactions  fully. 
Speed  in  recognition  of  words  at  this  time  becomes  an  enemy 
of  excellence  in  oral  reading.  These  facts  justify  the  contention 
that  it  would  be  more  in  harmony  with  the  child's  needs  to  lay 
less  emphasis  on  oral  reading  during  the  intermediate  grades 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  to  give  greater  opportunity  for  the  de- 
velopment of  effective  habits  of  silent  reading. 

Again,  the  curve  of  progress  in  rate  of  silent  reading  for  the 
pupils  of  Grand  Rapids  shows  that  the  most  rapid  progress  is 
made  by  the  pupils  of  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  grades.  By 
the  time  pupils  reach  the  sixth  grade  their  habits  of  careful  silent 
reading  have  been  well  established.  It  will  be  noted  that  under 
our  present  system  of  instruction  little  progress  or  advance  is 
made  beyond  this  grade  in  rate  of  silent  reading.  As  Diagram 
XXIII  shows,  this  was  true  not  only  in  the  case  of  Grand  Rapids 


READING  83 

but  in  the  case  of  Cleveland  and  the  other  cities  which  were 
represented  in  Diagram  XXIII.  As  pointed  out  above,  this  is  a 
general  defect  in  all  elementary-school  teaching.  Silent  reading 
can  develop  much  beyond  the  point  shown  in  these  diagrams. 
It  would  be  a  great  advantage  to  all  pupils  if  they  could  attain 
the  highest  possible  fluency  in  silent  reading.  Schools  should 
take  an  entirely  new  attitude  in  regard  to  these  various  phases 
of  reading  achievement. 

Furthermore,  during  the  third  and  fourth  grades,  when 
pupils  are  just  beginning  to  develop  the  power  of  rapid  and  in- 
telligent silent  reading,  they  also  become  interested  in  reading  to 
find  out  facts.  Reading  for  information,  therefore,  should  con- 
stitute the  essential  purpose  of  reading  exercises.  The  reading 
committee  of  Grand  Rapids  has  made  provision  in  its  course  of 
study  for  this  type  of  reading.  The  course  of  study  says  at  the 
beginning  of  the  fourth  grade  "This  is  chiefly  silent  reading  to 
get  information  for  the  work  in  history,  geography,  natural 
science,  and  physiology.  The  recitation  or  class  discussion  be- 
comes the  test  of  the  pupil's  ability  to  get  thought  from  the 
printed  page.  It  is  of  great  importance  that  boys  and  girls  ac- 
quire this  ability  and  until  they  can  do  silent  reading  intelli- 
gently, it  is  advisable  to  use  class  time  in  which  the  work  may 
go  on  under  the  teacher's  help  and  guidance."  As  one  visits 
the  schools,  he  finds  that  the  spirit  of  these  directions  has  not 
been  carried  out  in  practice  to  any  great  extent. 

The  facts  presented  in  the  preceding  paragraphs  should 
justify  the  conclusion  that  the  pupils  of  Grand  Rapids  may  very 
well  begin  to  devote  considerable  attention  to  silent  reading  in 
the  third  grade.  During  two  or  three  periods  a  week,  silent  study 
might  well  be  substituted  for  sight  reading.  The  pupils  should 
read  with  a  definite  purpose  or  problem  in  mind  and  the  reading 
should  be  followed  by  a  brief,  lively  discussion  to  enable  the 
teacher  to  determine  the  extent  to  which  the  class  as  a  whole 
appreciated  the  thought  of  the  selection  and  to  determine  the 
extent  to  which  individual  help  on  the  part  of  certain  members 
of  the  class  is  needed.  Frequently,  pupils  should  be  given  a 
relatively  easy  selection  and  should  be  urged  to  proceed  rapidly 
with  their  reading.  By  all  means  pupils  should  never  be  told 
to  pronounce  the  words  to  themselves  while  reading  silently. 
That  principal  of  Grand  Rapids  who  urges  the  pupils  under  her 
supervision  to  read  so  that  she  can  see  their  lips  move,  and  who 
enco'urages  this  habit  throughout  the  grades,  is  developing  habits 
on  the  part  of  pupils  which  will  defeat  the  attempt  to  develop 
effective  silent  readers. 

In  endeavoring  to  secure  speed  and  quality  in  silent  read- 


84  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

ing,  the  teacher  should  adapt  her  method  to  the  selection  in  hand 
or  should  choose  selections  which  are  adapted  to  a  given  purpose. 
Many  selections  may  be  read  quickly  for  the  story.  Several 
pages  of  Black  Beauty  may  be  read  rapidly  to  find  out  the  num- 
ber of  things  that  Black  Beauty  had  to  become  accustomed  to 
in  order  to  become  a  well-trained  horse.  Speed  can  be  encour- 
aged in  such  an  exercise  by  limiting  the  amount  of  time  given 
to  the  reading.  On  the  other  hand,  many  selections  should  be 
read  with  more  care  in  order  to  determine  what  the  essential 
points  are  in  the  selection,  or  to  weigh  the  relative  importance 
of  the  facts,  or  to  associate  the  facts  of  the  selection  with  things 
which  the  child  already  knows.  It  is  the  phase  of  reading  just 
described  of  which  the  pupils  of  Grand  Rapids  stand  most  clear- 
ly in  need.  Throughout  the  intermediate  grades  selection  after 
selection  should  be  assigned  and  the  pupil  trained  to  read  that 
selection  silently  under  the  guidance  of  specific  purposes.  Such 
a  lesson  cannot  be  conducted  without  careful  thought  and  prepar- 
ation. At  frequent  intervals  careful  tests  of  speed  and  quality 
of  silent  reading  should  be  made  in  order  to  determine  the  most 
urgent  need  of  the  pupils.  The  results  of  these  tests  should 
direct  the  teacher  in  her  choice  of  further  assignments. 

Wider  training  in  habits  of  effective  silent  reading  is  recom- 
mended for  the  pupils  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  as  well 
as  for  the  pupils  of  the  intermediate  grades.  Part  of  the  time 
now  given  to  oral  reading  should  be  utilized  in  teaching  pupils 
how  to  read  more  effectively.  The  criticism  now  often  made  by 
high-school  teachers  that  the  elementary  school  fails  to  teach  its 
pupils  to  read  effectively  is  doubtless  justified  in  large  measure 
so  far  as  the  power  of  silent  reading  and  interpretation  are  con- 
cerned. Evidence  of  this  fact  is  found  in  the  wide  variation 
which  prevails  in  the  achievement  of  eighth-grade  pupils.  The 
teachers  of  reading  in  the  upper  grades  should  see  to  it  that  the 
boys  and  girls  who  go  from  the  elementary  school,  either  into 
the  high  school  or  out  into  the  practical  world  of  affairs,  have 
been  trained  in  the  art  of  silent,  individual  mastery  of  the  printed 
page.  Less  emphasis  on  formal  oral  reading  in  the  intermediate 
and  upper  grades  and  more  emphasis  upon  effective  habits  of 
silent  reading  is  the  outstanding  recommendation  which  issues 
from  this  study  of  the  instructional  needs  in  reading  of  the  pupils 
of  Grand  Rapids. 


CHAPTER  V 

COMPOSITION 

Matthew  H.  Willing 


The  achievement  of  the  elementary-school  pupils  of  Grand 
Rapids  in  written  English  composition  was  investigated  by 
means  of  the  following  test:  The  pupils  in  grades  4-2,  5-2,  6-2, 
7-2,  and  8-2  were  asked  to  write  original  stories  on  the  subject, 
"An  Exciting  Experience."  They  were  directed  to  write  about 
something  that  had  happened  to  them  or  to  people  whom  they 
knew.  They  were  warned  against  reproducing  stories  they  had 
read  or  had  seen  at  moving  picture  shows.  The  following  sug- 
gestions were  written  on  the  board  to  help  them  in  making  selec- 
tions :  A  Storm,  A  Runaway,  An  Errand  at  Night,  A  Wonderful 
Journey,  In  the  Woods,  On  the  Water,  On  the  Ice,  On  the 
Mountains,  An  Unexpected  Meeting.  They  were  not  required 
to  use.  any  of  these,  if  they  preferred  others.  The  whole  aim  in 
devising  and  giving  the  test  was  to  secure  as  natural  an  expres- 
sion as  possible  on  subjects  of  personal  interest  to  the  children. 
The  requirement  that  they  use  this  kind  of  a  subject  insured  a 
certain  uniformity  which  made  it  easier  to  evaluate  results. 

The  test  period  covered  thirty  minutes — five  for  preliminary 
explanation  and  suggestion,  twenty  for  uninterrupted  writing, 
and  five  for  concluding,  making  corrections  and  counting  the 
words  written.  In  seventeen  representative  schools  the  tests 
were  administered  by  the  writer,  while  in  the  other  buildings  the 
principals  managed  the  work.  A  conference  was  held  with  the 
principals  before  the  beginning  of  the  tests  relative  to  their  pur- 
pose and  method.  The  interpretation  of  results  here  made  is  on 
the  basis  of  the  seventeen  schools,  though  the  data  from  the 
others  are  also  set  forth  in  a  concluding  table. 

These  seventeen  schools  provided  a  total  of  2075  papers, 
divided  as  follows  among  the  four  grades :  4-2,  456 ;  5-2,  445 ; 
6-2,  490;  7-2,  367;  8-2,  317. 

For  the  purpose  of  grading,  a  random  selection  of  ten  papers 


86  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

was  made  from  each  grade  in  each  school  with  the  exception  of 
three  unusually  large  classes  from  which  a  third  of  the  papers 
was  drawn.  The  selection  in  each  case  was  ample  to  afford  a 
correct  respresentation  of  the  whole  group,  since  the  ten  papers 
rarely  constituted  less  than  a  third  of  the  whole  number.  The 
papers  thus  selected  numbered  805,  divided  as  follows:  4-2,  170; 
5-2,  175 ;  6-2,  180;  7-2,  165 ;  8-2,  115. 

These  805  papers  were  graded  by  the  use  of  a  composition 
scale  derived  from  the  material  of  an  exactly  similar  test  given 
in  Denver,  Colo.,  the  preceding  December.  This  scale  consists 
of  eight  samples  ranging  by  approximately  equal  steps  from 
poorest  to  best,  and  covering  the  range  of  accomplishment  of 
pupils  in  grades  4  to  8  inclusive.  It  is  reproduced  immediately 
below. 

Composition  Scale 

A-90 

The  most  exciting  experience  of  my  life  happened  when  I  was  but 
five  years  of  age.  I  was  riding  my  tricycle  on  the  top  of  our  high  ter- 
race. Beside  the  curbing  below,  stood  a  vegetable  wagon  and  a  horse. 
Suddenly  I  got  too  near  the  top  of  the  terrace.  The  front  wheel  of  my 
tricycle  slipped  over  and  down  I  went,  lickety-split,  under  the  horse 
standing  by  the  curbing.  I  had  quite  a  high  tricycle  and  the  handle-bars 
scraped  the  horse's  stomach,  making  him  kick  and  plunge  in  a  very 
alarming  manner.  I  was  directly  under  him  during  this,  but  finally  I 
rolled  over  out  of  his  way  and  scrambled  up.  I  looked  at  my  hands! 
Most  of  the  first  finger  and  part  of  the  thumb  of  my  left  hand  were 
missing.  The  horse  had  stepped  on  them.  I  had  endured  no  sensation 
of  pain  before  this,  but  now  my  mangled  hand  began  to  hurt  terribly. 
I  was  hurried  to  the  hospital  and  operated  on,  and  now  you  would 
hardly  notice  one  of  my  fingers  is  missing.  I  certainly  have  good  cause 
to  congratulate  myself  on  my  good  fortune  in  escaping  with  as  little 
injury  to  myself  as  I  did,  for  I  might  have  been  terribly  mangled  in  my 
head  or  body. 

No.  of  mistakes  in  spelling,  punctuation  and  syntax  per 

hundred  words — 0. 

B-80 

Near  our  ranch  in  Fort  Logan  there  was  a  chicken  ranch.  On  day 
my  sister  and  I  went  up  to  the  chicken  ranch  on  our  horses.  Coming 
back  there  was  a  road  leading  from  our  house  to  the  main  road  and 
along  this  road  were  half  rotted  stumps.  On  every  one  of  these  stumps 
what  do  you  think  we  saw.  We  saw  snakes!  snakes!  snakes!  I  suppose 
these  snakes  were  shedding  their  skins  they  were  of  every  color,  shape 
and  size.  But  when  sister  and  I  saw  these  snakes  we  whipped  our 
horses  into  a  gallop  and  away  we  went  just  as  hard  as  we  could  go. 
When  we  got  to  the  house  we  went  in  and  mamma  couldn't  get  us  out 
the  house  that  day.  I  was  so  scared  that  I  believe  I  dreamed  about 
snakes  for  a  month. 

Number  of  mistakes  in  spelling,  punctuation  and  syntax 

per  hundred  words — 5. 

C-70 
When  I  was  in  Michegan  I  had  an  exciting  thing  happen  or  rather 


COMPOSITION  87 

saw  it,  it  was  when  the  big  steamship  plying  between  Chicago  and 
Muskegon  was  sunk  about  7  o'clock  in  the  evening.  It  caught  on  fire 
with  a  load  of  cattle  and  products  for  the  market  on  board,  one  of  the 
lifeboats  carrying  some  of  the  few  people  who  were  on  board  landed  at 
our  pier.  The  "whaleback",  steamer  which  goes  between  Chicago  and 
Muskegon  was  two  hours  later  in  coming  than  the  freighter  and  was 
stopped  to  clear  up  the  wreckage,  all  of  the  cattle  and  products  and  an 
immense  cargo  of  coal  were  lost,  but  there  were  only  two  people  lost, 
the  ship  tried  hard  to  get  to  port  with  her  cargoe  but,  could  not  reach 
it.  The  next  morning  we  found  planks,  and  parts  of  the  wreck  on  the 
beach.  Our  cottage  was  at  the  top  of  a  cliff  and  it  was  just  one  hundred 
feet  to  the  lake  from  our  cottage,  we  had  a  beautiful  view,  and  the  sight 
of  the  fire  on  the  horizon  was  a  beautiful  sight  (though  it  was  pitiful,). 

Number  of  mistakes  in  spelling,  punctuation  and  syntax 

per  hundred  words — 8. 

D-60 

One  time  when  mother,  some  girl  friends  and  myself  were  staying 
in  the  mountains.  An  awful  storm  came  up.  At  the  we  were  way  up 
the  mountain.  The  lighting  flashed  and  the  thunder  roared.  We  were 
very  frighted  for  the  cabin  we  were  staying  at  was  at  the  foot  of  the 
mountain.  We  didn't  have  our  coats  with  us  for  it  was  very  warm  when 
we  started.  There  were  a  few  pine  trees  near  us  so  we  ran  under  them. 
They  didn't  do  much  for  good  for  the  rain  came  down  in  torents.  The 
rain  came  down  so  hard  that  it  uprooted  one  of  the  trees.  Finely  it 
began  to  slack  a  little,  So  we  thought  we  would  try  and  go  back.  About 
half  was  down  the  mountain  was  a  little  hut.  We  started  and  when  got 
about  halfway  down  it  began  to  rain  all  the  harder.  We  didn't  know 
what  to  do  for  this  time  there  wasn't  any  trees  to  get  under.  We  de- 
sided  to  go  on  for  the  nearest  shelter  was  the  hut.  Finely  we  got  there 
cold  and  wet  to  the  skin. 

Number  of  mistakes  in  spelling,  punctuation  and  syntax 

per  hundred  words — 11. 

E-SO 

One  time  mother  and  father  were  going  to  take  sister  and  I  for  a 
long  ride  thanksgiving.  We  had  to  go  60  miles  to  get  there,  When  sister 
and  I  herd  about  it  we  were  very  glad.  It  was  a  very  cold  trip.  We 
four  all  went  in  a  one-seated  automoble.  Dady  drove  and  mother 
held  me  and  sister  sat  on  the  top  the  top  was  down.  Mother  could  not 
hold  sister  for  she  was  two  heavy.  When  we  got  there  they  had  a  hot 
fire  ready  for  us  and  a  goose  dinner.  We  were  there  over  night.  In  the 
morning  it  was  hot  out.  This  was  on  a  farm.  Sister  and  I  got  to  go 
horse-back  riding.  It  was  lots  of  fune.  They  had  children.  The 
children  were  very  nice.  Our  trip  home  was  very  cold.  When  we  got 
home  it  had  snod. 

Number  of  mistakes  in  spelling,  punctuation  and  syntax 

per  hundred  words — 14. 

F-40 

My  antie  had  her  barn  trown  down  last  week  and  had  all  her 
chickens  killed  from  the  storm.  Witch  happened  at  twelve  oclock  at 
night.  She  had  30  chickens  and  one  horse  the  horse  was  saved  he  ran 
over  to  our  house  and  claped  on  the  door  whit  his  foot.  When  we  saw 
him  my  father  took  him  in  barn  where  he  slepped  the  night  with  our 
horse.  When  our  antie  told  us  about  the  accident  we  were  very  sorry 
the  next  night  all  my  anties  things  were  frozen.  The  storm  blew 


88  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

terrible  the  next  morning  and  I  could  not  go  to  school  so  I  had  to  stay 
home  the  whole  week. 

Number  of  mistakes  in  spelling,  punctuation  and  syntax 

per  hundred  words — 17. 

G-30 

The  other  day  when  I  was  rideing  on  our  horse  the  engien  was 
comeing  and  he  got  frightened  so  he  through  me  down  and  I  broke  my 
hand. 

And  the  next  thing  I  done  was  I  went  to  the  docter  and  he  put  some 
bandage  on  it  and  he  told  me  to  come  the  next  day  so  I  came  the  next 
day  and  he  toke  the  bandage  off  and  he  looked  at  it  and  then  it  was 
better. 

Mistakes  in  spelling,  punctuation  and  syntax  per  hun- 
dred words — 23. 

H-20 

Deron  the  summer  I  got  kicked  and  sprain  my  arm.  And  I  was  in  bed 
of  wkeeks  And  it  happing  up  to  Washtion  Park  I  was  going  to  catch 
some  fish.  And  I  was  so  happy  when  I  got  the  banged  of  I  will  nevery 
try  that  stunt  againg. 

Number  of  mistakes  in  spelling,  punctuation  and  syntax 

per  hundred  words — 30.  . 

The  papers  from  the  seventeen  Grand  Rapids  schools  were 
graded  by  the  writer  subsequent  to  his  use  of  the  scale  in  grad- 
ing the  papers  of  the  Denver  test  mentioned  above. 

The  following  table  gives  the  distribution  of  marks  by 
grades.  The  first  or  left  half  of  the  table  gives  grades  that  are 
subdivided  more  minutely  than  the  scale  itself.  Thus  when  a 
composition  is  between  B  and  C  in  the  scale,  it  is  graded  75. 
In  the  right  half  of  the  table  the  grades  are  reduced  to  correspon- 
dence with  the  scale. 

From  the  table  and  diagrams  it  will  be  seen  that  the  pupils 
in  4-2  and  5-2  grades  are  nearer  together  in  their  ability  in  this 
test  than  are  pupils  of  the  higher  grades.  A  mathematical  index 
of  this  homogeneity  is  the  quartile  deviation  (Q)  given  in  the 
above  table  for  each  grade.  This  quartile  deviation  represents 
half  the  distance  on  the  scale  between  the  mid-points  of  the 
upper  and  lower  halves  of  a  distribution.  In  the  diagrams  it  is 
one-half  the  distance  between  the  two  outer  broken  lines  run- 
ning through  vertically.  The  nearer  these  two  lines  are  to- 
gether, the  smaller  the  quartile  deviation  and  the  greater  the 
homogeneity  of  the  group  in  question.  The  quartile  deviations 
from  the  five  grades  as  given  in  the  table  are : 

Grade   .  4-2        5-2        6-2        7-2        8-2 

Q 6.1        6.2         6.8        7.8          8 

This  is  as  much  as  to  say,  that  the  longer  pupils  remain  in 
school,  the  farther  apart  they  grow  within  their  respective  grades 
in  the  particular  abilitv  here  tested.  Or,  to  put  it  another  way, 


COMPOSITION 


89 


[£}       G 
J       rt 

PQ    O 
H    £ 

o 
r^ 


(0  0  C<J  <^  VO  0  00  tH  10  fC  0\  ^  t«  VO  tx 


rH  ^-1  CO  CO  CO  <M  <M 


ro  ro  to  to  rH 


CO  01  "«•  •*  C<1  i 


<M  ro  ^  T-I  CM 


The  data  of  this  table  are  illustrated  in  the  following  dia- 
grams. 


m 


m 


±: 


&rs 


DIAGRAM  XXVII— ^Distribution  of  merit  scores  in  composition  in  grades  4-2  and  5-2 
of   17  -Grand   Rapids  schools. 


COMPOSITION 


91 


DIAGRAM 


XXVIII — Distribution  of  merit  scores  in  composition  in  grades  6-2  and  7-2 
of  17  Grand  Rapids  schools. 


92 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


OLA 


DIAGRAM   XXIX — Distribution  of  merit   scores  in   composition  in  the  8-2   grades  and 
in   all   grades   of   17    Grand   Rapids   schools. 


COMPOSITION  93 

grade  standards  in  written  composition,  if  there  are  any,  become 
less  and  less  defined  as  one  approaches  high  school. 

One  other  significant  point  indicated  by  the  above  table 
and  diagrams  is  the  great  amount  of  overlapping  in  ability  from 
grade  to  grade.  The  upper  quartile  (mid-point  of  upper  half)  of 
one  grade  is  almost  the  median  (mid-point)  of  the  next  higher. 
That  is,  the  upper  quarter  of  any  grade  is  better  than  the  lower 
half  of  the  succeeding  grade,  or  the  lower  quarter  of  the  second 
grade  following.  This  overlapping  is  much  more  exaggerated 
in  the  case  of  the  7-2  and  8-2  grades.  There  is,  in  fact,  little 
difference  between  the  two.  A  more  concrete  illustration  of 
what  is  here  meant  is  afforded  by  noting  the  percentage  of 
pupils  in  each  grade  making  a  given  score,  say  50. 

Grade    4-2        5-2        6-2        7-2        8-2 

Per  cent  marked  50     28%      45%      40%      24%      15% 

All  this  simply  means  that  grade  lines  do  not  indicate  very 
much  so  far  as  accomplishment  in  written  composition  is  con- 
cerned— at  least  when  general  merit  is  under  consideration. 

The  following  table  gives  the  quantity  medians  (words 
written),  the  merit  medians  and  the  quartile  deviations  in  merit 
for  each  grade  in  each  of  the  seventeen  schools. 

The  merit  curves  of  these  schools  in  comparison  with  that 
of  the  group  are  shown  in  Diagrams  XXX  and  XXXI. 

The  merit  curve  of  the  group,  or  of  the  system  as  we  may 
call  it,  shows  a  consistent  rise  from  4-2  to  7-2  but  a  distinct 
slowing  up  in  8-2.  The  successive  gains,  4-2  to  5-2,  5-2  to  6-2, 
etc.,  are  6.1,  5.7,  8.5  and  3.5.  The  greatest  gain  over  a  preceding 
grade  is  made  by  the  7-2  grade,  while  the  lowest  gain  comes  in 
the  8-2  grade.  The  individual  schools,  as  may  be  seen  in  the 
diagrams,  follow  this  same  curve  more  or  less  closely.  The  8-2 
grade  almost  universally  shows  little  or  no  improvement  over 
the  7-2 ;  while  the  7-2  is  almost  always  much  above  the  6-2.  On 
the  basis  of  this  investigation  it  is  not  possible  to  tell  why  these 
peculiarities  exist.  They  present  problems  for  local  .supervisory 
study. 

It  is  interesting  in  this  connection  to  note  that  the  merit 
curve  for  Denver  runs  very  closely  parallel  to  this  of  Grand 
Rapids.  (Diagram  XXXII.) 

The  quantity  curves  for  the  two  systems  are  compared  in 
Diagram  XXXIII. 


co 

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CM   10    0    0\    00 

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m  oo  o  o  o 
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:  •*  :  CM 
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vOt^Tj-Tj-iooOi— lOCM        lOOt^vOroOOVO       \      co 
vdvo'^TttNlvOTtCJOx       iroCMOOO-^OO       ivo" 


•  — «      cMoooooNoqcMoocj     it^vo^oooq     :    m 


ai 


•        ^HOC5OCDOOiOiOiOOioOtoioir>»-(O     O 


00  O  t^  O  <TJ   •* 


O  OO  to  CM  O 


e  med 
Dution 


;a 


t^  OO  CM  vo 


to  t^  O  O  t-H  OO  CM 


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Tl-  CO  TJ-  Tf 


1-  O 
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1 

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: 

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S  "S 


lljiiililllillll 


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ai 


COMPOSITION 


95 


School    Median 


System    Median 


DIAGRAM    XXX    (A) — Comparison   of   merit   curve   in    composition   of    17    Schools    of 
Grand  Rapids  with  the  curves  of  Individual   Schools. 


96  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


System    Median —  — 


School    Median 


DIAGRAM    XXX    (B)— Comparison    of    merit    curve    in    composition    of    17    Schools    of 
Grand   Rapids   with    the   curves   of   Individual    Schools. 


COMPOSITION 


97 


70 


System  Median 

DIAGRAM    XXXI    (A) — Comparison   of   merit   curve   in    composition    of    17    schools    of 
Grand    Rapids    with    the    curves    of    individual    schools. 


98  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


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DIAGRAM    XXXI    (B) — Comparison    of   merit   curve   in    composition    of    17    schools    of 
Grand    Rapids    with    the    curves    of    individual    schools. 


COMPOSITION 


99 


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System   Median     —  School  Medians 

DIAGRAM    XXXI    (C) — Comparison    of   merit    curve    in    composition    of    17    schools    of 
Grand  Rapids  with  the  curves  of  individual  schools. 


100  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


\ti 


DIAGRAM     XXXII — Comparison    of    merit    curves    in    composition    of     Denver    and 

Grand    Rapids. 


DIAGRAM    XXXIII — Comparison    of   quantity   curves    in    composition    of    Denver    and 

Grand  Rapids. 


102  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

These  diagrams  will  be  referred  to  later  in  comparing  the 
results  of  the  test  in  the  two  systems. 

Table  XXI  that  follows  gives  the  ranking  of  the  schools  in 
the  case  of  each  grade  with  respect  to  merit.  When  schools 
have  the  same  medians  in  particular  grades  they  are  arranged 
alphabetically.  This  is  most  noticeable  in  grade  7-2. 

It  will  be  seen  at  once  that  schools  do  not  rank  at  all  con- 
sistently throughout  their  grades.  For  example,  Lexington 
ranks  first  in  4-2,  eleventh  in  5-2,  third  in  6-2,  fifth  in  7-2  and 
fourth  in  8-2  and  it  is  one  of  the  most  consistent.  This  lack  of 
consistency  from  grade  to  grade  makes  it  really  impossible  to 
rank  the  schools  as  units  with  much  validity. 

Another  and  more  significant  point  to  note  in  Table  XXI  is 
the  range  in  medians  from  the  lowest  schools  to  the  highest.  For 
the  successive  grades  these  ranges  are  16.1,  12.7,  15,  14.6  and 
15.9.  That  is,  the  best  class  in  any  grade  is  a  step  and  a  half  on 
the  scale  above  the  poorest.  This  is  almost  the  equivalent  of  a 
three-year  range  in  the  system  medians.  On  the  basis  of  the 
system  medians,  the  best  classes  in  a  grade  are  at  least  two 
years  ahead  of  the  poorest  classes. 

This,  of  course,  may  be  inevitable  and  justifiable  but  the 
supervisors  of  these  schools  should  recognize  the  fact  that  in 
composition  the  conditions  described  exist  and  call  for  some 
kind  of  treatment.  Grand  Rapids  does  not  face,  as  do  some 
other  cities,  difficulties  growing  out  of  the  extensive  use  of 
foreign  languages  in  the  homes  from  which  the  children  come. 
Nor  are  social  condition  strikingly  heterogeneous.  Furthermore, 
where  conditions  in  the  home  are  unfavorable  they  do  not  al- 
ways parallel  the  poor  compositions.  Some  of  the  lowest  classes 
are  made  up  of  American  children  from  professional  and  busi- 
ness classes ;  while  some  of  the  highest  classes  are  made  up  of 
children  practically  all  of  foreign  parentage  and  from  the  poorer 
orders.  It  is  easy  to  ascribe  too  great  importance  to  these  two 
factors  in  explaining  situations  like  the  above — especially  in  the 
upper  grades. 

The  matter  of  the  amount  written  has  not  been  touched 
upon  outside  Table  XX,  and  needs  very  little  consideration.  It 
appears  to  have  little  to  do  with  the  merit  of  the  compositions. 
One  possible  exception  to  this  is  the  4-2  grade  where  the  correla- 
tion is  rather  high.  There  are  great  differences  between  classes 
in  this  particular  which  suggest  interesting  subjects  for  local 
study. 

In  general  the  written  composition  of  the  Grand  Rapids 
pupils  impressed  the  writer  favorably.  It  surpassed  that  of  the 


COMPOSITION  103 


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104  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

Denver  pupils  both  in  quantity  and  merit.    The  medians  of  the 
two  are  compared  in  this  table : 

TABLE  XXII 

Comparison  of  Medians  of  Quantity  and  of  Merit  in  Composition 
between  the  Denver  and  Grand  Rapids  Schools. 

4-2  5-2  6-2  7-2  8-2 

Quan.     Merit  Quan.     Merit  Quan.    Merit  Quan.    Merit  Quan.    Merit 

Grand  Rapids          128        41.2  145         47.3  174       53.0  205       61.5  220       65.0 

Denver  88         32.2  118        44.7  142        50.9  158       60.0  193       63.5 

So  far  as  the  fourth  grade  is  concerned,  the  difference  be- 
tween the  two  systems  is  probably  due  mainly  to  handwriting. 
The  Denver  pupils  in  this  grade  have  not  developed  the  facility 
or  the  legibility  that  the  Grand  Rapids  pupils  of  the  same  grade 
display.  The  difficulty  which  the  Denver  pupils  experience  in 
mechanical  execution  doubtless  accounts  in  large  measure  for 
the  poor  product  in  composition.  It  will  be  noted  that  Grand 
Rapids  is  not  able  to  maintain  this  initial  lead,  although  never 
actually  overtaken. 

The  stories  of  the  Denver  pupils  were  more  exciting,  more 
economically  expressed,  more  to  the  point.  The  stories  of  the 
Grand  Rapids  pupils  tended  to  be  diffuse,  to  include  much  irrele- 
vant matter  and-  to  lack  interest  and  point.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  Denver  papers  were  weak  on  the  side  of  spelling,  punctua- 
tion, and  grammatical  expression,  in  all  of  which  the  Grand 
Rapids  papers  excelled. 

The  schools  tested  by  the  principals  have  not  been  included 
in  the  above  discussion,  lest  the  validity  of  the  results  or  the 
comparisons  be  questioned.  It  is  inevitable,  of  course,  that  the 
procedure  under  different  examiners  with  little  opportunity  for 
training  should  vary  in  some  particulars.  There  are  indications 
that  such  was  the  case.  On  the  whole,  however,  the  results  in 
these  other  schools,  as  given  in  the  table  below,  are  so  much 
like  those  collected  by  the  writer  that  they  confirm  the  general 
judgments  expressed  above. 

The  merit  medians  of  these  schools  where  the  principals 
gave  the  tests  run  somewhat  higher  than  those  of  the  group 
tested  by  the  writer.  This  is  particularly  noticeable  in  the  8-2 
grade  where  a  median  of  72.5  is  7.5  higher  than  the  median  of 
the  same  grade  in  the  other  groups.  This  speaks  well  for  the 
concentration  of  eighth  grades  in  the  Junior  High  School  and 
the  South  High  School  from  which  most  of  these  papers  came. 
The  eighth  grade  papers  in  the  other  group,  except  those  from 
Union  High,  all  came  from  elementary  schools. 


COMPOSITION 


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CHAPTER  VI 

TESTS  IN  ARITHMETIC 


George  S.  Counts 


In  order  to  determine  the  degree  of  attainment  that  the 
children  in  the  Grand  Rapids  schools  have  reached  in  the  funda- 
mental operations  in  arithmetic,  tests  were  given  to  all  pupils 
in  grades  3-1  to  8-2  inclusive.  The  tests  were  given  during  the 
week  of  February  28  to  March  3. 

Nature  of  Test 

The  test  used  was  composed  of  fifteen  different  sets  of  ex- 
amples, designated  as  Sets  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  H,  I,  J,  K,  L, 
M,  N,  and  O.  It  was  intended  to  cover  the  "fundamentals"  of 
arithmetic.  Of  the  fifteen  sets,  four  were  in  addition,  two  in 
subtraction,  three  in  multiplication,  four  in  division,  and  two  in 
fractions.  The  several  sets  in  each  operation  appeared  in  the 
test  in  the  order  of  their  complexity  but  interwoven  with  the  sets 
of  the  other  operations.  Thus,  Set  A  was  a  set  of  examples  in 
the  addition  of  two  figures,  the  very  simplest  sort  of  addition. 
Addition  appeared  again  in  Set  E  in  the  form  of  five-figure 
columns  and  again  in  Set  J  in  the  form  of  thirteen-figure  columns, 
and  finally  in  Set  M  which  was  composed  of  examples  of  four 
columns  of  five  figures  each.  Sets  B  and  F  were  sets  in  sub- 
traction ;  Sets  C,  G,  and  L  were  in  multiplication ;  Sets  D,  I,  K, 
and  N,  in  division ;  and  Sets  H  and  O  in  fractions. 

Since  the  test  was  composed  of  fifteen  sets  and  since  it  was 
desirable  that  each  pupil  attempt  the  examples  in  each  set,  it 
was  necessary  to  make  definite  time  allowances  for  the  various 
sets.  In  determining  the  amount  of  time  to  be  given  to  a  parti- 
cular set  the  attempt  was  made  to  make  the  allowance  large 
enough  to  enable  even  the  slowest  pupil  to  solve  at  least  one 
example  and  yet  not  large  enough  to  permit  even  the  most  rapid 
pupil  to  solve  all  of  the  examples  of  the  set.  Thus,  the  time 
allowances  ranged  from  thirty  seconds  to  three  minutes,  depend- 


TESTS  IN  ARITHMETIC  107 

ing  on  the  complexity  of  the  operation.  The  test  used  in  Grand 
Rapids  is  a  slightly  improved  form  of  the  test  which  was  used 
in  the  Cleveland  survey. 

Method  of  Giving  Test 

From  the  foregoing  it  is  seen  that  the  test  is  a  complicated 
one,  and  care  in  giving  it  is  required.  The  principals  of  the 
various  schools  were  therefore  called  together  the  week  the 
tests  were  to  be  given  and  the  test  and  the  method  of  giving  it 
were  gone  over  carefully.  In  order  to  further  insure  the  results 
against  error,  or  rather  in  order  to  determine  the  amount  of 
error  in  the  results,  if  any,  the  writer  personally  conducted  the 
test  in  a  majority  of  the  grades  in  eight  schools.  In  this  way  a 
body  of  comparative  results  was  secured  with  which  to  deter- 
mine the  accuracy  of  the  results  in  general.  The  giving  of  the 
tests  was  greatly  facilitated  by  the  fact  that  the  schools  use  the 
Courtis  practice  forms  in  their  daily  work.  These  practice  forms 
require  the  same  type  of  work  as  that  used  in  the  tests. 

In  giving  instructions  to  the  principals  it  was  asked  that  the 
Courtis  signals  for  starting  and  stopping  the  pupils  be  used; 
that  all  the  timing  in  each  school  be  done  by  one  person,  prefer- 
ably the  principal ;  and  that  the  testing  be  begun  in  the  third 
grade  and  proceed  up  to  the  eighth  in  order  that  the  timer  in 
each  school  become  experienced  for  the  more  important  upper 
grades,  more  important  because  it  is  not  until  the  sixth  grade 
is  reached  that  the  pupils  attempt  all  the  sets. 

Owing  to  the  length  of  the  test,  twenty-two  minutes  of 
actual  work  being  required,  an  interval  of  half  a  minute  between 
each  two  sets  of  examples  was  allowed.  Furthermore,  two  days 
were  taken  for  the  test,  the  first  nine  sets  being  given  the  first 
day  and  the  remaining  six  sets  the  following  day. 

General  Results 

The  general  results  for  Grand  Rapids  as  a  whole  appear  in 
Table  XXIV.  The  table  is  understood  if  read  thus :  The  median 
number  of  examples  solved  correctly  by  the  3-1  grades  through- 
out the  city  is  11.8,  by  the  3-2  grades  13.4,  etc. 

From  the  table  it  is  seen  that  the  third  grades  were  able  to 
work  the  examples  in  Sets  A  and  B  only.  Pupils  in  these  grades 
have  not  been  introduced  to  the  more  complex  forms  of  arithme- 
tical operations  and  are  consequently  not  familiar  with  them. 
Grade  4-1  tried  more  of  the  sets  than  did  grade  3-2;  4-2  tried 
more  than  4-1 ;  and  so  on  until  finally  grade  6-1  tried  all  of  the 
sets. 

As  a  general  rule  the  table  shows  constant  progress  from 


108 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


grade  to  grade  beginning  with  a  relatively  small  score.  How- 
ever, there  are  two  striking  exceptions  to  this  general  rule  in  the 
cases  of  Sets  H  and  O  which  it  will  be  remembered  are  sets  in 
fractions.  There  thus  seems  to  be  a  fundamental  difference  be- 
tween the  fractions  and  the  other  types  of  examples.  In  the 
case  of  simple  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  or  division, 
the  pupil  is  confronted  with  the  task  of  making  automatic  certain 
straightforward  responses.  Here  it  is  not  so  much  a  question 
of  knowing  how  as  it  is  of  developing  speed  in  making  re- 
sponses. For  example,  it  does  not  take  a  pupil  long  to  learn 
how  to  solve  an  example  in  long  division,  but  it  does  require 

TABLE   XXIV 
Medians  for  Each  Arithmetic  Test  for  All  Grades. 


TEST 

GRADE 

3-1 

3-2 

4-1 

4-2 

5-1 

5-2 

6-1 

0-2 

7-1    |   7-2 

8-1 

8-2 
30.3 

A 

11.8 

13.4 

13.6 

16.4 

20.3 

21.5 

22.8 

25.0 

26.5 

27.3 

29.5 

B 

6.3 

8.4 

9.1 

12.1 

14.7 

15.9 

16.8 

19.1 

21.3 

20.7 

22.8 

25.5 

C 

7.1 

11.3 

13.7 

14.0 

15.5 

17.0 

17.7 

18.8 

19.3 

20.7 

D 

6.9 

10.4 

12.5 

14.3 

15.5 

16.9 

18.4 

19.7 

20.5 

23.0 

E 

4.1 

4.6 

5.2 

5.4 

6.0 

6.6 

7.2 

7.2 

7.8 

8.1 

F 

2.8 

4.1 

6.0 

6.5 

7.1 

8.0 

9.3 

9.6 

10.3 

11.0 

G 

2.2 

3.3 

4.5 

4.9 

5.3 

5.6 

6.1 

6.1 

6.7 

6.8 

H 

6.3 

6.2 

6.5 

9.0 

7.8 

8.6 

8.8 

I 

.7 

.9 

1.3 

1.4 

2.3 

3.0 

.3.8 

4.1 

4.0 

4.7 

J 

2.8 

3.4 

3.7 

4.1 

4.5 

5.4 

5.3 

5.7 

6.5 

K 

3.0 

4.3 

5.4 

6.5 

7.5 

8.8 

9.7 

10.3 

L 

2.3 

2.9 

3.3 

3.6 

4.3 

4.5 

4.9 

4.9 

M 

2.3 

3.0 

3.6 

4.3 

4.5 

4.9 

5.0 

5.7 

5.7 

N 

.7 

.8 

1.1 

1.4 

1.7 

1.8 

2.0 

2.3 

0 

3.5 

3.6 

3.9 

4.6 

5.5 

4.8 

much  time  and  much  practice  to  develop  speed  in  this  sort  of  an 
operation.  In  the  case  of  the  fractions,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is 
more  a  question  of  knowing  how  than  of  long  practice.  This 
statement  is  borne  out  very  forcefully  by  the  large  initial  score 
made  in  each  set  of  fractions.  In  H  the  median  score  of  grade 
5-2,  the  first  grade  attempting  the  set,  is  6.3,  while  grade  8-2 
makes  a  score  of  only  8.8.  In  the  intermediate  grades  the  score 
fluctuates  up  and  down,  and  there  is  an  utter  lack  of  the  con- 
sistent progress  characteristic  of  the  other  types  of  operations. 
This  certainly  means  that  if  the  pupil  knows  how  to  solve  a 
particular  example  in  fractions,  it  requires  but  little  time  or 
energy  to  do  it. 

This  discussion  raises  the  whole  question  of  the  teaching  of 
fractions.  Efficiency  in  the  four  fundamentals  seemingly  re- 
quires long  and  continuous  training,  while  efficiency  in  solving 
fractions  seems  to  be  easily  acquired  and  easily  lost.  The  teach- 
ing of  the  former  should,  therefore,,  be  begun  early,  but  would 
it  not  be  wise  to  postpone  the  teaching  of  fractions  until  the 


TESTS  IN  ARITHMETIC  109 


(25-.OJ  , 


3 

4  (12.1) 


3 
4 
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f.&D-MiL 

XXXIV— Median  records  for  all  schools  in  the  15   arithmetic  tests. 


110 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


pupil  is  sufficiently  mature  to  receive  thorough  instruction  in 
this   complex   type   of   operation? 

In  Diagram  XXXIV  the  facts  set  forth  in  Table  XXIV  are 
graphically  presented  with  the  qualification,  however,  that  the 
scores  for  the  younger  section  of  each  grade,  i.  e.  3-1,  4-1,  etc., 
are  omitted. 

Comparison  With  Cleveland 

Since  the  arithmetic  test  used  in  Grand  Rapids  was,  with  a 
few  minor  modifications,  the  test  used  in  the  survey  of  the 
Cleveland  schools,  it  is  possible  to  make  some  very  interesting 
comparisons  between  the  two  school  systems  in  the  matter  of 
arithmetical  attainment. 

Through  a  process  of  weighting  it  was  possible  to  convert 
the  score  made  in  each  set  into  the  terms  of  a  basic  unit.  By 
adding  together  "units"  or  "points"  thus  made  in  all  the  sets  by 


1500 
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1000 
750 

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DIAGRAM    XXXV — A   comparison   of  median   total   scores   made  in   the   15   sets  of  the 
arithmetic  test  by  3rd,  4th,  5th,  6th,  7th  and  8th  grades  in  Cleveland  and  Grand  Rapids. 


TESTS  IN  ARITHMETIC 


111 


a  particular  pupil,  grade,  or  school,  a  total  score  was  obtained 
which  would  singly  represent  the  scores  made  in  all  of  the  sets 
by  that  particular  pupil,  grade  or  school. 

Following  this  system  of  weighting,  the  median  records  for 
each  of  the  grades  in  both  Cleveland  and  Grand  Rapids  were 
thrown  into  a  total  score.  A  comparison  of  these  total  scores 
made  by  the  several  grades  in  the  two  cities  appears  in  Diagram 
XXXV.  The  solid  line  represents  the  progress  made  in  arith- 
metic from  grade  to  grade  by  the  pupils  in  the  Grand  Rapids 
schools  as  evidenced  by  the  records  made  in  the  "fundamentals" ; 
the  broken  line  represents  Cleveland.  The  diagram  shows  Cleve- 
land to  be  distinctly  superior  in  the  three  lower  grades,  but  Grand 
Rapids  forges  ahead  in  the  sixth  grade  and  maintains  the  lead 
through  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades. 

This  comparison  is  favorable  to  the  Grand  Rapids  schools 
because  the  final  attainment  in  the  upper  grades  is  the  desirable 
thing.  Cleveland  spends  more  time  on  arithmetic  in  the  lower 


15. 


LQ. 


DIAGRAM    XXXVI — A    comparison    of    the    median    number    of    examples    solved 
correctly  in  Set  "A"  by  grades  3  to  8  inclusive  in  Cleveland  and  Grand  Rapids. 


112 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


grades  than  does  Grand  Rapids,  but  this  extra  expenditure  of 
time  seems  to  be  of  no  avail  in  the  long  run.  However,  since 
the  scores  represented  in  this  diagram  are  composite  scores,  it 
is  necessary  to  make  a  further  analysis  of  the  records  made  by 
the  two  city  systems  to  find  out  whether  or  not  Grand  Rapids 
is  uniformly  superior  in  all  types  of  the  arithmetical  processes 
occurring  in  the  test. 

We  turn,  therefore,  to  Diagram  XXXVI,  in  which  the  two 
cities  are  compared  as  to  attainment  in  Set  A,  the  simplest  set 
of  examples  in  addition.  In  general,  the  relations  between  the 
two  curves  here  are  similar  to  those  shown  in  the  previous  dia- 
gram. The  differences,  however,  while  of  the  same  sort,  are  not 
so  marked  here  as  in  the  comparison  of  total  scores.  This  same 
statement  holds  true  if  applied  to  any  one  of  the  first  four  sets 
of  the  test  which  are  the  very  simple  sets  in  addition,  subtrac- 
tion, multiplication,  and  division.  Indeed,  -in  Set  B,  substraction, 
the  Cleveland  scores  are  consistently  higher  than  the  Grand 
Rapids  scores  throughout  the  grades.  It  may  be  said,  therefore, 


DIAGRAM   XXXVII— A 
correctly  in  Set  "M"  by 


comparison    of   the   median    number    of    examples    solved 
grades  3  to  8  inclusive  in  Cleveland  and  Grand  Rapids. 


TESTS  IN  ARITHMETIC 


113 


that  the  general  superiority  of  the  latter  over  the  former  is  not 
due  to  superiority  in  the  very  simple  combinations. 

Let  us  pass,  therefore,  to  the  next  diagram,  Diagram 
XXXVII,  and  compare  the  two  cities  in  Set  M,  the  addition  of 
four  columns  of  five  figures  each.  Here  a  large  initial  advantage 
on  the  side  of  Cleveland  is  overcome  between  the  fourth  and 
fifth  grades,  and  from  that  point  on  Grand  Rapids  shows  decided 
superiority.  An  interesting  and  significant  contrast  may  be 
drawn  between  Diagrams  XXXVI  and  XXXVII  if  it  will  be 
remembered  that  they  represent  respectively  a  simple  and  a 
complex  type  of  addition.  There  is  little  difference  between  the 
two  systems  in  the  mastery  of  the  former  process,  while  in  the 
latter  and  more  important  process  the  difference  becomes 
marked. 

The  attainment  of  the  two  systems  in  Set  F,  the  more  diffi- 
cult to  the  two  sets  in  subtraction,  which  is  the  subtraction  of 
three-place  from  three  and  four-place  numbers,  is  shown  in  Dia- 


10 


rit 


Zx* 


a&si 


DIAGRAM   XXXVIII — A   comparison   of   the   median   number   of   examples   solved 
correctly  in  Set  "F"  by  grades  3  to  8  inclusive  in  Cleveland  and  Grand  Rapids. 


114 


SCHOOL  .SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


gram  XXXVIII.  The  diagram  resembles  the  previous  diagrams 
so  closely  that  little  comment  is  necessary.  Greater  differences 
between  the  cities  appear  than  in  Set  A,  but  not  so  great  as  in 
Set  M.  In  complexity  it  would  seem  that  Set  F  is  intermediate 
between  the  cUher  two  sets. 

Turning  to  Diagram  XXXIX,  we  find  the  differences  be- 
tween Cleveland  and  Grand  Rapids  more  marked  than  in  any  of 
the  other  diagrams.  Here  the  scores  made  in  Set  L,  the  most 
complicated  and  difficult  set  in  multiplication  in  which  four- 
place  numbers  are  multiplied  by  two-place  numbers,  are  com- 
pared. It  seems  to  be  in  this  type  of  process  that  Grand  Rapids, 
as  compared  with  Cleveland,  shows  the  greatest  superiority.  In 
the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  the  pupils  in  the  former  city 
actually  solve  one  more  example  on  the  average  than  do  pupils 
in  the  latter  city. 

A  glance  at  Diagram  XL  indicates  the  weakness  of  Grand 
Rapids.  Here  are  graphically  represented  the  scores  made  in 
Set  N,  the  most  difficult  set  in  division,  the  division  of  five-place 


DIAGRAM 

correctly 


XXXIX- 

in  Set  "L' 


-A    comparison    of    the    median    number    of    examples    solved 
by  grades  3  to  8  inclusive  in  Cleveland  and  Grand  Rapids. 


TESTS  IN  ARITHMETIC 


115 


numbers  by  two-place  numbers  in  which  there  is  much  carrying 
to  be  done  and  a  "trial  divisor"  is  necessary.  In  Set  K,  a  simpler 
set  in  long  division,  Grand  Rapids  is  also  inferior  to  Cleveland ; 
in  Set  I,  a  set  in  short  division,  the  two  cities  show  about  equal 
attainment. 

It  seems,  therefore,  that  Grand  Rapids  is  weak  in  division 
and  especially  weak  in  that  type  of  long  division  represented  by 
Set  N.  The  weakness  at  this  point  is  very  likely  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  type  of  example  found  in  Set  N  does  not  appear  in  the 
Courtis  exercises.  Through  the  Courtis  exercises  the  pupils 
had  become  familiar  with  most  of  the  arithmetical  operations 
presented  to  them  in  this  test  but  here  the  pupils  encountered 
something  for  which  they  had  not  been  definitely  prepared,  as  is 
shown  in  Diagram  XL. 

In  the  application  of  the  four  fundamentals  to  fractions  the 
two  systems  show  approximately  equal  attainment.  This  is 
shown  graphically  in  Diagram  XLI  which  represents  the  scores 
made  in  Set  O.  An  examination  of  the  facts  regarding  Set  H, 


-=t 


za 


La 


j  jd  A 


a£J 


DIAGRAM   XL — A  comparison  of  the  median   number  of   examples   solved  correctly 
Set  "N"   by   grades   3   to   8   inclusive  in   Cleveland   and   Grand   Rapids. 


116  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

the  other  set  of  fractions,  shows  about  the  same  conditions. 

From  the  comparisons  thus  made  between  Grand  Rapids 
and  Cleveland  it  is  seen  that  there  is  little-  superiority  one  way 
or  the  other  in  the  simple  combinations ;  that  in  the  more  com- 
plex types  of  addition,  substraction,  and  multiplication,  Grand 
Rapids  is  distinctly  superior;  that  in  long  division  Grand  Rapids 
shows  a  decided  weakness;  and  that  in  fractions  the  two  cities 
are  on  a  par. 

Variations  Among  the  Schools 

The  method  of  comparison  which  has  been  employed  up  to 
this  point  in  bringing  out  the  characteristics  of  the  Grand  Rap- 
ids school  system  can  be  extended  to  a  study  of  individual 
schools.  Indeed,  the  comparison  of  individual  schools  within 
the  system  is  in  many  ways  more  productive  than  an  external 


7? 


f.  A 


DIAGRAM    XLI — A   comparison   of   the   median   number   of   examples   solved   correctly 
in    Set   "D"   by   grades   3    to   8   inclusive   in   Cleveland    and    Grand    Rapids. 


TESTS  IN  ARITHMETIC  11* 

comparison  because  such  internal  comparison  can  be  repeated 
from  time  to  time  by  the  officers  of  the  system  itself  as  a  means 
of  determining  improvement  within  the  system. 

In  every  school  system  there  is  variation  from  school  to 
school  as  there  is  variation  from  class  to  class  in  a  school  and 
from  individual  to  individual  in  a  class.  It  should  be  noted, 
however,  that  variation  from  individual  to  individual  and  vari- 
ation from  class  to  class  in  the  same  grade  or  from  school  to 
school  in  the  same  system  are  not  equally  justifiable.  Variations 
among  individuals,  in  so  far  as  they  are  due  to  native  endow- 
ment, are  matters  over  which  we  have  no  control,  and  no  attempt 
should  be  made  to  abolish  them.  In  the  case  of  variations  be- 
tween schools  the  matter  is  entirely  different.  In  so  far  as  the 
populations  of  two  schools  are  different  in  mental  equipment, 
which  is  ordinarily  very  slight,  different  records  made  by  those 
two  schools  are  justifiable.  More  striking  differences  in  results 
are  due  to  differences  in  methods  of  teaching,  differences  in  aim, 
differences  in  standards,  etc.,  and  should  be  eliminated. 

The  elimination  of  these  differences  from  school  to  school 
and  from  class  to  class  is  the  task  of  the  supervisory  staff.  This 
staff  should  have  a  standard  of  arithmetical  attainment  for  each 
grade  and  should  know  whether  or  not  a  particular  class  in  a 
particular  school  is  approaching  the  standard.  If  the  class  in 
question  is  found  not  to  be  approaching  the  standard  adopted, 
the  supervisor  should  determine  the  reason.  That  is  the  distinct 
function  of  the  supervisor  if  he  is  to  function  at  all.  We  are 
justified,  therefore,  in  the  conclusion  that  the  variations  found  in 
arithmetical  ability  from  school  to  school  and  from  class  to 
class  in  the  same  school  indicate  lack  of  supervision,  while  uni- 
formity indicates  strong  supervision. 

In  Diagram  XLII  we  find  a  graphical  representation  of  the 
facts  which  bear  on  this  question.  A  comparison  of  the  average 
scores  made  by  thirty-five  schools  is  here  exhibited.  As  ex- 
plained in  the  diagram,  an  average  score  for  each  school  was 
obtained  by  averaging  the  median  scores  made  by  grades  3-1 
to  8-2  inclusive. 

The  diagram  shows  marked  uniformity  from  school  to 
school.  As  a  basis  for  improvement  in  supervision  this  dia- 
gram presents  encouragement  because  of  the  high  degree  of  uni- 
formity already  obtained  and  a  clear  indication  of  the  problems 
of  the  system.  The  better  schools  and  those  at  the  bottom  of  the 
diagram  should  be  studied  intensively  by  their  principals  and 
by  the  central  officers  of  the  system. 

For  the  purpose  of  indicating  supervision  or  lack  of  it  in  a 
particular  grade  Diagram  XLIII  has  been  devised.  In  this  dia- 


•••••••••••••• 


*In  these  schools  the  testing  was  done  quite  largely  by  a  member  of  the  survey  staff. 
DIAGRAM  XLII — A  comparison  of  the  average  scores  made  by  35  schools.     An  average 
score  for  each  school  was  obtained  by  averaging  the  median  scores 
made  by  grades  3-1  to  8-2  inclusive. 


TESTS  IN  ARITHMETIC 


119 


gram  a  comparison  of  the  records  made  in  the  four  sets  in  addi- 
tion, Sets  A,  E,  J,  and  M,  by  the  6-2  grades  in  three  schools, 
Sigsbee,  Lafayette,  and  Turner,  is  made.  The  figures  at  the 
points  of  intersection  of  the  lines  represent  the  median  scores 
made  by  the  indicated  grades  in  the  indicated  sets  in  all  the 
schools.  The  vertical  lines  are  so  drawn  as  to  represent  the 
standards  of  attainment  for  the  several  grades  in  the  four  sets  as 
determined  by  the  median  attainment  of  Grand  Rapids  children, 
the  heavy  vertical  line  representing  the  standard  for  the  sixth 
grade. 

An  examination  of  this  diagram  reveals  some  interesting 
facts.  The  record  of  grade  6-2  in  Sigsbee  indicates  a  desirable 
condition.  The  pupils  in  this  class  show  uniformly  high  attain- 


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DIAGRAM   XLIII — A  comparison  of  records  made  in  the  four  sets  in  addition   (A,   E. 

J,    M)    by    the    6-2    grades    in    three    schools,    Sigsbee,    Lafayette    and    Turner. 

The    figures    at    the    points    of    intersection    of    the    lines    represent    the 

median   scores   made   by    the    indicated    grades   in    the   indicated 

sets  in  Grand  Rapids. 

ment  in  all  four  sets.  This  means  proper  emphasis  on  the  differ- 
ent types  of  addition  and  consequently  a  well-supervised  class. 
A  glance  at  the  record  made  by  the  same  grade  in  the  Lafayette 
School  shows  a  different  state  of  affairs.  For  some  reason  or 
other  the  class  is  weak  in  Set  E,  i.  e.,  in  the  short-column  addi- 
tion, while  in  Set  M  this  sixth-grade  class  exhibits  eighth-grade 
ability.  This  shows  disproportionate  emphasis  on  certain  arith- 
metical process  and  perhaps  disproportionate  emphasis  on  arith- 
metic at  the  expense  of  other  subjects.  Of  course,  this  last 


120 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


statement  is  only  a  surmise  and  is  thrown  out  merely  as  a  word 
of  caution.  Turning  to  the  diagram  again,  our  record  shows  the 
sixth  grade  in  the  Turner  School  to  be  uniformly  low  in  all  four 
sets.  The  uniformity  and  the  position  of  the  class  call  for  care- 
ful study  and  explanation.  Thus,  we  see  that,  so  far  as  this 
analysis  goes,  the  Sigsbee  class  is  a  well-organized  class,  doing  a 
high  grade  of  work;  the  Lafayette  class  is  doing  generally  a 
high  grade  of  work  but  lacks  standards  which  means  loose 
supervision ;  the  Turner  class  is  a  uniformly  organized  class 
doing  a  low  grade  of  work. 

To  further  indicate  variations  among  the  schools  Diagram 
XLIV  is  presented.  In  this  diagram  the  median  scores  made  by 
the  4-2  grades  in  31  schools  and  by  the  6-2  grades  in  25  schools 


15 

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DIAGRAM    XLIV — Median   scores   of   4-2    grades   in   31    schools   and   of   6-2   grades    in 
25   schools  in  Set  "A",  simple  addition. 

in  Set  A,  simple  addition,  are  shown  graphically.  Each  of  the 
squares  represents  a  school,  and  the  number  in  the  square  is  the 
median  score  made  by  the  grade  in  the  school  represented.  The 
diagram  shows  some  overlapping  between  the  two  grades.  Six 
of  the  sixth  grades  do  no  better  in  the  test  than  some  of  the 
fourth  grades. 

If  we  may  now  return  to  the  Cleveland  records,  an  interest- 
ing comparison  may  be  drawn  in  this  matter  of  overlapping. 
This  comparison  is  made  in  Diagram  XLV  in  which  is  graphi- 
cally presented  the  range  of  the  median  scores  made  in  Set  A  by 
the  "middle  fifty  per  cent"  of  the  schools  in  Cleveland  and 
Grand  Rapids  for  each  grade.  In  order  to  get  the  first  line  in 
the  diagram  for  the  third  grade  in  Grand  Rapids,  for  example, 
the  32  schools  having  third  grades  were  arranged  in  order  from 


TESTS  IN  ARITHMETIC  121 

the  highest  to  the  lowest  on  the  basis  of  the  scores  made  in  Set 
A.  Since  there  were  32  schools  the  eighth  and  the  twenty-fourth 
schools  approximately  enclosed  the  middle  fifty  per  cent.  The 
scores  of  these  two  schools  were  12.2  and  14.8  respectively. 
Their  difference  is  2.6,  which  is  thus  taken  to  represent  the 
range  of  the  middle  fifty  per  cent. 

Now,  returning  to  the  diagram,  we  note  that  for  each  grade 
the  range  thus  determined  is  less  for  Grand  Rapids  than  it  is  for 


Clzv. 
£77. 


DUv.    3.S 


Clev.    49 


3.* 

4,1 


G.H    +2 
Clev.    S.Z. 


DIAGRAM   XLV — Range  of  median  scores  made  in  Set  "A"  by  the  "middle  fifty  per 
cent"   of   the   schools   in    Cleveland   and    Grand   Rapids   for   each   grade. 

Cleveland.  This  means  that,  so  far  as  the  records  made  in  Set  A 
are  concerned,  there  is  less  variation  among  the  schools  of  Grand 
Rapids  than  there  is  among  the  Cleveland  schools. 

Accuracy 

A  few  words  should  be  said  concerning  accuracy.  Up  to 
this  point  only  the  examples  correctly  solved  have  been  counted. 
In  all  of  the  grades  pupils  "attempted"  problems  which  they 
did  not  solve.  We  shall,  therefore,  distinguish  from  this  point 
on  "attempts"  from  "rights".  In  general,  accuracy  increases 
with  the  grades  and  is  lower  in  the  more  complex  than  in  the 
simpler  operations.  In  Diagram  XLVI  we  find  a  comparison  of 


122 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


the  median  number  of  examples  attempted  and  the  median 
number  of  examples  solved  correctly  in  Set  M  by  the  several 
grades.  Set  M  was  chosen  because  it  shows  the  typical  relation 
between  the  "rights"  and  "attempts"  which  exists  in  the  four 
fundamentals,  which  include  all  sets  except  Sets  H  and  O.  The 
one  fact  to  be  brought  out  is  the  uniform  progress  in  both 
"attempts"  and  "rights". 

In   Diagram  XLVII   we  find  an   entirely   different   sort   of 
relation  existing  between  the  two  curves  which   represent  the 


/Li 


L±s. 


^ 


0? 


DIAGRAM    XLVI — A    comparison    of   the    median    number   of    examples    attempted    and 
the  median  number  of  examples  solved  correctly  in  Set  "M"  by  the  grades  indicated. 

median  number  of  examples  attempted  and  the  median  number 
of  examples  solved  correctly  in  Set  O  by  the  grades  indicated. 
The  uniform  progress  in  both  "attempts"  and  "rights"  char- 
acteristic of  the  fundamentals  is  here  utterly  lacking.  Up  to 
grade  7-1  the  number  of  examples  attempted  increases  more 
rapidly  than  does  the  number  solved  correctly,  but  from  that 


TESTS  IN  ARITHMETIC 


123 


DIAGRAM    XLVII— A   comparison   of   the  median   number   of   examples   attempted   and 
the  median  number  of  examples  solved  correctly   in  Set  O  by  the  grades  indicated. 

point,  on  the  number  of  "attempts"  increases  less  rapidly,  and 
in  both  eighth  grades  there  is  an  actual  decrease  of  "attempts" 
accompanied  in  8-1  by  an  increase  of  "rights".  All  of  this  goes 


124 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


to  reinforce  what  was  said  earlier  in  the  report  concerning  the 
need  of  approaching  the  teaching  of  fractions  in  a  manner  quite 
different  from  that  used  in  teaching  the  four  fundamentals. 

Furthermore,  the  studies  set  forth  in  the  foregoing  para- 
graphs indicate  the  way  in  which  a  school  system  ought  to  ana- 
lyze its  results  so  as  to  check  its  methods.  Only  by  a  care- 
ful analysis  of  those  lines  in  which  the  school  is  working  can 
methods  of  teaching  be  refined. 

Some  Facts  About  Age  and  Promotion 

In  connection  with  the  arithmetic  tests  a  large  number  of 
facts  was  secured  regarding  the  promotion  and  non-promotion 
of  pupils  taking  the  tests.  In  Diagram  XLVIII  there  is  a  com- 
parison of  the  records  made  by  three  groups  of  50  pupils  each  in 


DIAGRAM   XLVIII — A  comparison  of  the  records  made  by  three  groups  of  pupils   ii 

grade  8-2.     The  "fast"  pupils  are  those  who  have  skipped  one  or  more  grades ; 

the   "slow"   pupils   are   those   who   have   repeated   one   or   more   grades; 

and   the   "regular"   pupils   are  those   who   have   neither   skipped 

nor    repeated.      Data    from    50    pupils    in    each    group. 


TESTS  IN  ARITHMETIC 


125 


grade  8-2,  a  "fast"  group,  a  "slow"  group,  and  a  "regular"  group. 
The  "fast"  pupils  are  those  who  have  skipped  one  or  more 
grades ;  the  "slow"  pupils  are  those  who  have  repeated  one  or 
more  grades ;  and  the  "regular"  pupils  are  those  who  have  neither 
skipped  nor  repeated.  In  securing  the  50  pupils  for  each  group, 
the  same  number  for  each  group  was  taken  from  each  school. 
Thus,  if  three  "fast"  pupils  were  taken  from  the  Union  School, 
there  were  also  three  "slow"  and  three  "regular"  pupils  taken 
from  that  school.  The  number  was  limited  because  of  the 
mechanical  difficulty  of  handling  the  material.  The  cases  used 
for  the  comparison  are  numerous  enough  to  assure  a  fair  samp- 
ling of  the  whole  system. 

The  diagram  shows  that  in  accuracy  and  in  speed  the  pupils 
who  have  skipped  one  or  more  grades  are  superior  to  those  who 


DIAGRAM    XLIX — A   comparison   of   the   records   made   by   three   groups   of   pupils   in 
grade    8-2.       The     150    pupils    whose    records     furnish    the     data    for    diagram 
XLVIII  were  redistributed  into  three  groups  on  the  basis  of  age,  the 
50  youngest  being  put  in  one  group,  the  50  oldest  in  a  second 
group,   and  the  remaining  50  in   a  third   group,   desig- 
nated   in    the    diagram    as    "normal." 


126 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


have  made  just  normal  progress,  and  the  latter  are  in  turn  super- 
ior to  those  who  have  repeated.  These  differences  appear  to  be 
more  pronounced  in  Set  O  than  for  the  test  as  a  whole,  and  this 
is  especially  significant  because  Set  O  demands  a  higher  type  of 
mental  activity  than  do  the  other  arithmetical  operations. 

These  150  pupils  were  redistributed  into  three  groups  on 
the  basis  of  age,  the  50  youngest  being  put  in  one  group,  the  50 
oldest  in  a  second  group,  and  the  remaining  50  in  a  third  group 
designated  as  "normal".  The  records  made  by  these  three 
groups  are  compared  in  Diagram  XLIX.  The  surprising  fact 
brought  out  here  is  that  the  differences  between  the  two  extreme 
groups  were  not  only  not  diminished  by  this  redistribution  but 
were  actually  increased ;  that  is,  the  "young"  pupils  are  more 


DIAGRAM  L — A  comparison  of  the  records  made  by  two  groups  of  pupils  in  grade  8-2, 

the    one    group    containing    those    pupils    who    had    failed    or    repeated 

a  grade  below  the  6th  grade,  the  other  those  who  had 

failed  or  repeated  in  the  6th  grade  or  above. 


TESTS  IN  ARITHMETIC 


127 


superior  to  the  "old"  pupils  than  the  "fast"  pupils  are  to  the 
"slow"  pupils. 

The  important  consideration  in  this  connection  is  that  under 
our  present  system  pupils  are  often  held  back  on  account  of  their 
youth.  This  is  certainly  not  desirable.  Special  provision  should 
be  made  for  the  bright  pupil  so  that  he  may  make  the  most  rapid 
progress  consistent  with  his  physical  welfare. 

In  Diagram  L  another  comparison  is  presented  between 
the  records  made  by  two  other  groups  of  pupils  in  grade  8-2. 
Those  pupils  who  had  ever  repeated  a  grade  were  divided  into 
two  divisions,  the  one  containing  those  who  had  repeated  a 
grade  below  the  sixth,  the  other  containing  those  who  had 
repeated  a  grade  above  the  fifth.  The  diagram  shows  a  slight 
difference  in  favor  of  the  group  repeating  below  the  sixth 


DIAGRAM   LI — A  comparison  of  the  records  made  by  three  groups  of  pupils  in  grade 

7-2.      The   "regular"   pupils   are   those   who   have   made   normal   progress,    neither 

repeating  nor   skipping  a   grade ;    the   "irregular"   pupils   are  those   who 

have  repeated   because   of  transfer  from   one  school   to   another, 

sickness,  etc.  ;  and  the  "failures"  are  pupils  who  have 

repeated     because     of     failure.       Data 

from  54  pupils  in  each  group. 


128  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

grade.  This  may  be  due  to  recovery  from  the  cause  of  failure,  or 
it  may  be  due  to  a  difference  in  the  causes  of  failure  in  the  lower 
and  upper  grades.  This  latter  interpretation  may  be  inferred 
from  a  statement  made  by  a  pupil  when  he  wrote  as  an  explan- 
ation of  non-promotion  that  he  "did  not  realize  what  it  meant." 

In  order  to  see  the  relation  between  causes  of  repeating  and 
records  made  in  the  test  we  now  turn  to  Diagram  LI.  Here  we 
find  a  comparison  of  the  records  made  by  three  groups  of  pupils 
in  grade  7-2,  the  "regular"  pupils,  the  "irregular"  pupils,  and  the 
"failures".  The  "regular"  pupils  are  those  who  have  made  normal 
progress,  neither  skipping  nor  repeating  a  grade ;  the  "irregular" 
pupils  are  those  who  have  repeated  because  of  transfer  from  one 
school  to  another,  sickness,  etc. ;  and  the  "failures"  are  pupils 
who  have  repeated  because  of  failure. 

An  examination  of  the  diagram  shows  the  "regular"  pupils 
to  have  made  better  records  than  the  "irregular"  pupils,  and  the 
latter  to  have  made  better  records  than  the  "failures".  The 
really  significant  feature  of  the  diagram  is  the  difference  which 
is  shown  to  exist  between  the  first  two  groups.  Why  did  the 
"regular"  pupils  do  better  than  the  "irregular"  pupils?  It  would 
seem  that,  since  the  pupils  in  the  latter  group  repeated  because  of 
transfer,  sickness,  or  some  similar  cause,  "repeating"  itself  may 
be  largely  responsible  for  the  differences.  The  repeating  of  a 
grade,  whatever  the  cause,  cannot  fail  to  react  upon  the  child.  It 
is  therefore  seen  to  be  highly  desirable  in  the  light  of  the  facts 
here  presented  to  study  carefully  the  whole  system  of  promotion. 


CHAPTER  VII 

PENMANSHIP 

Frank  S.  Freeman 

Grand  Rapids  adopted  about  five  years  ago  a  new  system  of 
penmanship.  Up  to  that  time  the  writing  was  not  regarded  as 
satisfactory.  A  part  of  the  difficulty  was  thought  to  be  due  to 
the  inability  of  the  teachers  themselves  to  write  well  enough  to 
furnish  a  good  example  to  the  pupils.  Accordingly,  by  action  of 
the  Board  of  Education,  all  teachers  in  the  elementary  schools 
were  required,  as  a  condition  of  promotion,  to  secure  a  Palmer 
certificate.  This  rule  has  been  recently  enforced  with  strictness 
and  the  writing  in  the  schools  is  reported  to  be  greatly  improved. 

The  supervision  of  the  handwriting  under  the  system  now  in 
force  is  conducted  by  an  agency  outside  the  school  organization. 
The  compensation  for  this  supervision  is  obtained  through  the 
sale  of  writing  manuals  to  the  pupils  and,  to  a  less  degree, 
through  the  receipt  of  fees  from  the  teachers  in  return  for  certi- 
ficate of  attainment  in  penmanship. 

The  school  system  is  relieved  by  the  present  plan  of  some 
expense  in  the  matter  of  supervision,  but  the  cost  of  the  writing 
books  and  the  fee  exacted  from  the  teachers  is,  of  course,  an 
offset  to  this  apparent  economy.  The  community  as  a  whole 
pays  for  supervision  in  this  case  but  there  is  danger  that  certain 
important  problems  will  not  be  fully  understood  by  the  teachers 
and  principals,  or  be  solved,  because  of  the  absence  of  vigorous 
study  of  methods  within  the  system. 

In  order  to  study  the  handwriting  in  the  schools,  specimens 
were  collected  from  approximately  all  of  the  children  in  the 
elementary  schools.  Two  types  of  specimens  were  collected, 
one  of  which  was  obtained  through  the  formal  test  and  the  other 
through  a  composition  test. 

In  preparation  for  the  formal  test,  the  pupils  were  required 
to  memorize  selections  suited  to  their  grade,  the  selections  being 
uniform  for  the  same  grade  throughout  the  city.  At  the  time 


130 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


of  the  test,  the  pupils  wrote  for  two  minutes  continuously.  It  is 
possible  to  determine  the  speed  by  the  amount  written  in  this 
definite  time.  The  quality  was  determined  by  comparison  with 
the  Ayres  Handwriting  Scale.  In  the  composition  test,  nothing 
was  said  to  the  pupils  about  their  writing  and  they  did  not  know 
that  this  was  to  be  tested.  The  speed,  of  course,  could  not  be 
measured  in  this  test. 

The  method  of  making  the  test  was  thoroughly  explained 
to  the  principals  in  conference.  The  tests  were  made  by  the 
writer  in  nine  of  the  thirty-six  buildings,  and  the  principals  made 
the  tests  themselves  in  the  other  buildings.  The  results  from 


Gro-cte       a 


Gran  4  "Rapids    — 

Overage    o^  upper  Xalf  iw.  5t  Cities 


DIAGRAM  LII  —  Comparison  of  the  speed  of  writing  in  Grand  Rapids  and  in  56  cities. 


PENMANSHIP  131 

the  nine  schools  tested  by  the  writer  do  not  differ  materially 
from  those  of  the  others. 

The  papers  were  all  collected  and  graded  by  one  person  un- 
der the  supervision  of  the  writer.  The  grader  is  a  man  who  had 
been  prepared  by  previous  experience  and  training  to  do  this 
work.  All  of  the  papers  from  the  formal  test,  as  well  as  the 
composition  test,  were  graded  and  the  speed  of  writing  calcu- 
lated. 

.  Table  XXV  presented  the  results  of  the  tests  for  each  grade 
in  the  system  as  a  whole. 

TABLE  XXV 

Showing   Median   Speed  of  Writing  and  Median  Rank   in   Form   in 

Writing  and  Composition  Tests  for  Each  Grade  in  the  Grand  Rapids 
Schools. 

GRADE  II  HI  IV  V  VI  VII  VIII 

Speed                                    33.5  50.1  59.3  64.9  73.0  77.9  84.3 

Form   (writing  test) 29.4  34.5  44.4  51.7  58.2  61.4  68.4 

Form     (composition    test) 28.8  33.0  42.1  54.5  60.7  62.3  67.0 

This  table  is  to  be  read  as  follows:  The  median  speed  of 
writing  in  the  second  grades  of  the  whole  system  is  33.5  letters 
per  minute.  The  median  rank  in  the  form  of  the  second  grade 
writing  is  29.4  and  the  rank  in  the  form  in  the  composition  test 
is  28.8. 

In  order  to  bring  out  the  significance  of  these  results  from 
the  system  as  a  whole,  they  are  compared  graphically  with  the 
average  standing  in  speed  and  form  of  the  writing  of  55  and  56 
large  cities  respectively  in  Diagrams  LII  and  LIII.  In  Diagram 
LII  a  comparison  is  made  of  the  speed  of  the  writing  and  in 
Diagram  LIII  of  the  form.  The  form  of  the  specimens  from 
the  55  cities  was  carefully  graded  by  the  same  man  who  graded 
the  Grand  Rapids  papers  so  that  the  two  records  are  directly 
comparable. 

It  is  clear  from  these  diagrams  that  the  system  in  general 
stands  high  in  writing.  This  statement  holds  without  qualifica- 
tion with  reference  to  speed.  In  all  grades  but  the  second,  the 
speed  is  above  the  average  of  the  upper  half  of  the  56  cities  used 
as  a  standard,  and  in  the.  second  grade,  it  is  above  the  average 
of  the  56  cities.  The  form  is  approximately  equal  to  the  aver- 
age of  55  cities  in  grades  four  to  eight  but  in  the  second  and 
third  grades  it  is  considerably  below  the  average. 

There  is  a  divergence  in  practice  in  these  grades  throughout 
the  country,  and  Grand  Rapids  represents  one  of  two  contrasted 
types,  in  which  the  standard  of  form  is  below,  and  the  speed 
above,  the  average.  There  is  rather  strong  sentiment  among 


132  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


DIAGRAM    LIII — Comparison    of   the    form    in    handwriting    in    Grand    Rapids    and    in 

55    cities. 

primary  teachers  in  Grand  Rapids  and  in  other  systems  that  the 
practice  represented  in  Grand  Rapids  is  not  so  well  adapted  to 
the  primary  grades  as  is  the  contrasted  practice,  in  which  the 
child  is  allowed  to  write  more  slowly,  and  with  greater  attention 
to  form.  This  report  will  not  pass  judgment  on  this  issue,  but 
does  suggest  that  it  would  be  well  to  permit  controlled  experi- 
mentation along  the  line  which  is  represented  in  other  systems 
for  the  purpose  of  testing  the  alternative  policy  with  reference 
to  the  lower  grades.  That  the  system  of  alien  supervision  does 


PENMANSHIP 


133 


not  readily  permit  such  trial  of  alternative  methods  constitutes 
a  difficulty  in  such  supervision. 

As  has  been  said,  this  practice  of  permitting  rather  poor 


JT3 


DIAGRAM   LIV — Comparison   of  speed   in   handwriting  in   St.    Louis   and   in   56  cities. 


134 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


form  in  the  primary  grades  represents  a  policy  which  is  typical 
of  some  systems  of  teaching,  while  other  systems  get  better 
form  in  the  primary  grades,  and  obtain  equally  good  form  in  the 
upper  grades.  The  speed  in  Grand  Rapids  is  superior  to  the 
average  throughout,  but  not  more  so  in  the  lower  than  the  up- 
per grades. 


i- 


DIAGRAM    LV — Comparison    of   form   in   handwriting   in    St.    Louis    and   in    55    Cities. 


PENMANSHIP  135 

A  more  extreme  example  of  the  same  condition  is  found  in  a 
survey  of  the  writing  in  St.  Louis  as  shown  in  Diagrams  LIV 
and  LV.  In  that  city  the  speed  in  the  third  and  fourth  grades  is 
relatively  very  high  and  the  form  correspondingly  low.  The 
supervisor  and  the  principals  in  St.  Louis  regard  the  method 
which  has  been  used  in  the  past  in  the  primary  grades  as  defect- 
ive, and  are  at  work  upon  a  modification  of  the  methods  of  teach- 
ing for  these  grades.  In  particular  they  recognize  finger  move- 
ment as  the  type  of  movement  which  is  adapted  to  the  primary 
child,  and  are  attempting  to  develop  the  proper  use  of  this  move- 
ment instead  of  allowing  the  child  to  use  it  in  an  unsupervised 
manner,  which  he  will  otherwise  do.  This  modification  has  been 
made  as  high  as  the  third  grade  and  its  extension  to  the  fourth 
grade  is  contemplated.  This  modification  is  in  process  of  being 
made  and  is  apparently  too  recent  to  affect  the  children's  writing 
habits  very  greatly.  To  repeat,  the  condition  which  is  repre- 
sented by  the  results  in  these  two  systems  is  contrasted  with 
the  general  practice,  and  is  strongly  in  contrast  with  the  practice 
in  some  systems,  in  which  the  form  in  the  lower  grades  is  as 
much  above  the  average  as  it  is  below  in  these  cities.  Such  a 
divergence  as  this  constitutes  a  strong  demand  for  comparative 
experiments  under  the  control  of  supervisory  tests,  in  order  to 
determine  which  practice  is  the  more  advantageous,  both  for  the 
primary  grades  themselves  and  for  the  school  as  a  whole. 

The  method  of  teaching  writing  now  followed  in  Grand 
Rapids  accomplishes  good  results,  as  pointed  out  above,  by  the 
time  the  pupils  reach  the  upper  grades.  The  suggestions  made 
in  the  last  paragraph  could,  if  desired,  be  incorporated  into  the 
work  of  the  schools  without  sacrificing  any  of  the  virtues  of  the 
present  system.  In  order  to  bring  about  these  changes  in  the 
most  effective  way,  however,  the  problem  would  have  to  be 
taken  up  in  Grand  Rapids  itself  and  will  have  to  be  dealt  with 
through  careful  study  of  the  best  methods  of  treating  the  child- 
ren in  the  schools.  This  is  one  reason  for  urging  that  super- 
vision in  penmanship  be  not  given  over  entirely  to  a  system  that 
is  independent  of  the  schools. 

A  comparison  of  the  results  from  the  composition  test  and 
the  formal  writing  test  shown  in  Diagram  LVI,  indicates  that 
the  pupils  write  as  well  when  they  are  not  engaged  in  writing 
drill  as  when  they  are.  This  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  they 
wrote  more  slowly  in  the  composition  test;  but  at  any  rate,  it 
indicates  that  the  quality  of  writing  obtained  in  the  writing 
period  is  not  an  artificial  and  abstract  product.  This  is  a  situa- 
tion which  is  to  be  commended. 

Table  XXVI  presents  the  results  of  the  tests  in  the  indi- 


136  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


lo 


(,5 


55 


So 


// 

// 


35- 


3o 


// 


Grade.      2/X  3  *  5  6  7  * 

Writing  test 

Co  vwpoi'fctioYi  test    o o 

DIAGRAM    LVI — Comparison   of  the  rank   in   the   formal   writing  test   and   the 
composition   test. 

vidual  schools.  This  table  should  be  read  as  follows:  In  the 
Alexander  School,  the  second  grade  wrote  in  the  formal 
test  with  a  median  speed  of  26.  In  the  formal  test,  the  form  was 
graded  34.  In  the  composition  test,  the  form  was  graded  27.  In 
the  third  grade,  there  was  a  great  increase  in  speed,  deterioration 
in  the  form  in  the  formal  writing  test,  and  slight  improvement 
in  the  form  in  the  composition  test.  If  the  columns  are  read 


PENMANSHIP 


137 


EIGHTH 
GRADE 

U 

1 
w 

m      rotxco    :     m*    : 
vo     txixtx    ;     r^oo 

S»-H  VO  O     !       m  CM 
t^t^t^    :     t^oo 

CM       Tj-VOO     I       CMO 

ON     ooooo    :     t^oo 

:    :oova   :    :    :oo 
i    ivovo    :    :    ;vo 

:    irnoN    :    :    ;co 
I    1  1>*  tx    ;    ;     ;  co 

So   i    ivovo   ivo   i   i   i     vomvo 
^::COCO!CM:;:     OMOON 

SEVENTH 
GRADE 

U 
| 

C/3 

OOCM 

mvo 

COON 

in  in 

CM     |ONONi-H     j     ;  VOTf 

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138 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


vertically,  various  schools  can  be  compared  with   each   other. 
This  table  is  the  basis  of  selected  Diagrams  in  plate  LVIII. 

Of  equal  value  with  the  comparison  of  the  Grand  Rapids 
schools  with  other  school  systems  is  the  internal  comparisons  of 
schools  within  the  system.  To  facilitate  such  comparisons,  Dia- 
gram LVII  has  been  prepared.  This  represents  by  a  single 
graph  the  improvement  from  grade  to  grade  in  both  speed  and 


70 


So 


lo 


0         20        3O        to          5~0        &O         7&         fa 

DIAGRAM   LVII— Median  speed  and  form  in  handwriting  for  each  grade  of  the  Grand 
Rapids  Schools.     Form  on  vertical  scale  speed  on  horizontal  scale. 

form.  The  position  of  a  point,  representing  a  grade,  indicates 
by  its  horizontal  position  the  speed,  and  by  its  vertical  position 
the  form  of  writing  in  that  grade.  The  general  direction  of  the 
line  which  connects  gradepoint  with  gradepoint  is  forward  in 
both  dimensions  for  every  grade. 

It  will  be  noted,  however,  that  the  progress  between  the 


PENMANSHIP 


139 


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DIAGRAM    LVIII-A — Median    speed    and    form    in    handwriting    for    each    grade    of    6 
selected  schools.     Form  on  vertical  scale,  speed  on  horizontal  scale. 


140 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


J_l 


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DIAGRAM    LVIII-B  —  Median    speed    and    form    in    handwriting    for    each    grade    of    6 
selected  schools.     Form  on  vertical  scale,  speed  on  horizontal  scale. 


PENMANSHIP 


141 


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DIAGRAM    LVIIIrC— Median    speed    and    form    in   handwriting    for    each    grade    of    6 
selected  schools.     Form  on  vertical  scale,  speed  on  horizontal  scale. 


142  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

second  and  third  grades  is  more  pronounced  in  the  direction  of 
speed  than  in  the  direction  of  form. 

Diagrams  for  individual  schools  can  be  constructed  on  the 
same  plan  and  make  it  possible  for  principals  in  their  buildings 
to  study  the  progress  exhibited  from  grade  to  grade.  Such  pro- 
gress is  shown  for  several  schools  in  Diagram  LVIII. 

A  few  cases  illustrating  types  of  progress  may  be  discussed 
briefly.  Congress  and  Sigsbee  show  great  emphasis  on  speed. 
Indeed  Sigsbee  gets  tangled  up  in  the  upper  grades  because  of 
such  great  emphasis  on  speed  in  the  sixth  grade,  and  low  em- 
phasis upon  form  in  the  seventh.  Coit  and  Hall  emphasize 
form,  the  latter  somewhat  irregularly.  Palmer  shows  a  radical 
change  in  emphasis  in  the  upper  grades.  Lexington  shows 
striking  irregularities. 

Other  schools  can  readily  construct  diagrams  on  this  pat- 
tern, from  Table  XXVI,  which  gives  the  figures  for  all  schools. 
The  school  diagrams  can  also  be  brought  into  direct  comparison 
with  the  standards  determined  in  56  cities.  Diagrams  LIX  and 
LX  show  how  this  comparison  can  be  made  for  the  Widdicomb 
School  which  is  high  in  speed  and  low  in  form,  and  the  Pine 
School  which  is  better  than  the  average  in  speed,  low  in  form  in 
the  second  and  third  grades,  but  very  high  in  the  grades  above 
the  third. 

Special  comment  may  be  made  on  the  comparison  between 
the  Hall  School,  represented  in  Diagram  LXI,  and  the  Widdi- 
comb School  in  Diagram  LIX.  In  the  Hall  School,  the  problem 
of  supervision  is  met  in  a  special  manner  throughout  the  depart- 
mentalizing of  writing  in  connection  with  music.  These  two 
subjects  are  taught  by  one  person  throughout  the  school.  In 
the  Widdicomb  School  there  appears  to  be  a  minimum  of  super- 
vision due  to  the  fact  that  the  principal  follows  the  policy  of 
allowing  the  individual  teachers  large  latitude.  The  contrast 
between  the  results  in  the  two  schools  is  striking  and  is  a  re- 
flection of  the  policies  of  much  and  little  supervision.  In  the 
Hall  School  there  is  a  fair  balance  between  speed  and  form,  with 
-the  exception  of  the  somewhat  excessive  development  of  form  in 
the  upper  grades.  In  the  Widdicomb  School  form  is  sacrificed 
to  speed.  In  the  Hall  School  the  progress  is  consistent  with 
only  slight  exceptions.  In  the  Widdicomb  School  the  speed 
decreases  steadily  from  the  fourth  to  the  seventh  grades  and 
the  form  is  highly  erratic  at  the  sixth  grade. 


PENMANSHIP 


143 


Form  —Composition  7*it—Ht'JJtc*»t6  S&hoot  —  » —  «  — 

Form  -  Wrttiiie  Teat-  Wi'dJicowB  School 

Form  -    55  Cities 

Speed-  Widdicomk  Scftooi   — 


DIAGRAM  LIX — Comparison  of  speed  and  form  in  handwriting  at  Widdicomb  School 
with  speed  and  form  in  56  cities. 


144  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


Form   7o 


Grc.de      2  — ,3 

~ 


V-  5-  6  7 

Form -Com position  7est~- 7~/'ne  Schoot 
Form-  Writ; r>y   Test-  Pine  School 

-  65  Cities 

-    7?'/?e  School 


DIAGRAM   LX — Comparison  of  speed  and  form  in  handwriting  at   Pine   School  with 
speed  and  form  in  56  cities. 


PENMANSHIP 


2  ,'  / 


f  6  7 

[orTn  —  Composition   ~Fe  s1*  — 
harm-  Wrt~ti~nQ  TesT— 


-  //«-//   Schooi 

-  &  Ct'fres 


DIAGRAM   LXI—  Comparison  of  speed  and  form  in  handwriting  at  Hall   School  with 
speed  and  form  in  56  cities. 


146  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

The  lack  of  uniformity  in  practice  represented  by  the  results 
shown  in  the  foregoing  diagrams  indicates  that  there  is  need 
for  improvement  in, the  supervision  of  the  writing  of  the  schools. 
The  supervisory  agency  should  be  the  instrument  to  help  the 
individual  schools  and  grades  study  their  records  in  comparison 
with  those  of  the  other  schools  in  the  system  through  some  such 
tests  as  those  which  were  used  in  this  survey.  It  is  not  the  in- 
tention of  this  report  to  insist  that  this  can  be  done  only  through 
a  change  in  the  present  method  of  supervision.  The  results  of 
the  present  system  are  in  the  main  excellent.  But  the  defects 
which  have  been  pointed  out  are  real  and  important,  and  they  are 
defects  which  are  particularly  apt  to  occur  when  the  supervisory 
agency  is  not  in  close  touch  with  the  system. 

The  results  from  the  three  junior  high  schools  are  signifi- 
cant. The  teaching  of  writing  in  these  schools  is  somewhat  in- 
terfered with  by  the  fact  that  the  pupils  are  given  here  a  more 
varied  type  of  work  than  those  in  the  elementary  schools.  In  the 
case  of  the  South  High  School,  this  has,  up  to  the  present  time, 
interfered  with  any  systematic  writing  drills,  and  this  condition 
has  the  very  obvious  effect  of  lowering  the  efficiency  of  the 
writing  in  respect  to  form.  In  the  Junior  High  School,  writing 
lessons  are  given  and  the  results  are  as  good  as  in  the  system  as 
a  whole.  The  same  thing  is  true  of  the  work  in  the  Union  High 
School.  It  appears  from  these  facts  that  the  pupils  have  not  had 
sufficient  training  in  the  first  six  grades  to  make  it  advisable  to 
omit  drill  in  handwriting  when  they  enter  the  junior  high  school. 

In  many  of  the  rooms  in  which  the  writing  was  observed,  the 
desks  were  not  adapted  in  height  to  the  size  of  the  pupils  as 
well  as  they  should  have  been.  In  a  system  in  which  adjustable 
desks  are  not  used,  this  can  be  accomplished  by  having  enough 
desks  of  different  sizes  in  the  same  room  to  accommodate  prac- 
tically all  the  pupils  in  the  room. 

The  lighting  in  some  of  the  older  buildings  cannot  be  made 
as  good  as  it  should  be  without  radical  change  in  the  buildings. 
In  a  number  of  the  rooms  observed,  however,  the  lighting  is  un- 
necessarily bad  because  the  desks  face  in  such  a  direction  that  the 
windows  are  to.  the  right  of  the  children.  This  bad  condition 
should  be  remedied  by  placing  the  teacher's  desk  at  the  opposite 
end  of  the  room  and  reversing  the  children's  desks.  This  defect 
was  observed  for  example  in  the  following  rooms :  Hall  School, 

frades  7-2,  7-1,  and  grades  5-2,  5-1 ;  Widdicomb  School,  grades 
and  6-1. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

MUSIC 

J.  Beach  Cragun 


Inasmuch  as  the  surveys  of  music  in  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  and 
Grand  Rapids,  Mich.,  are  the  first  to  be  made,  no  well-grounded 
scales  of  measurement  have  been  developed.  These  two  sur- 
veys, then,  and  the  results  of  a  survey  of  a  single  Chicago  school 
are  the  only  three  in  which  the  same  scales  have  been  tried  out. 
Comparison  of  these  with  other  systems,  then,  is  not  possible, 
except  through  personal  estimate. 

The  formal  side  of  any  instruction  is  the  only  one  which 
lends  itself  to  the  process  of  measurement.  The  formal  aspect 
of  music  is  represented  in  sight  reading,  and  ability  to  read  at 
sight  may  be  subdivided  into  ability  to  comprehend  and  repro- 
duce rhythms  and  the  various  diatonic  and  chromatic  intervals. 

This  formal  phase  of  music  instruction — sight  reading — is 
accurately  estimated.  Other  phases  are  estimated  in  terms  of 
personal  observation  and  opinion. 

Recreational  Aspect 

One  of  the  chief  values  of  instruction  in  music  is  here  repre- 
sented. The  music  teacher,  as  no  other,  must  secure  and  hold  the 
willing  and  hearty  co-operation  of  the  pupils.  He  may  more  and 
more  organize  his  work  in  the  recreational  direction  for  the  pur- 
pose of  securing  this  co-operation,  or  he  may  organize  too  far 
in  the  other  direction  for  the  purpose  of  raising  the  standards 
expressed  in  his  course  of  study.  Neglect  of  either  is  but  little 
less  disastrous  than  an  ill-balanced  recognition  of  both. 

The  elementary  schools  of  Grand  Rapids  exhibit  a  most 
excellent  balance  between  the  recreational  and  the  educational. 
Practically  every  child  sings,  and  the  enjoyment  of  their  singing 
was  evident,  sincere,  and  very  nearly  universal.  I  believe  this 
to  be  due,  largely,  to  the  exceptional  success  of  the  system  in  the 
early  elimination  of  monotones.  It  is"  surely  evident  that  the 


148  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

small  amount  of  class  time  given  over  individually  to  the  back- 
ward children  is  well  spent.  It  not  only  secures  the  elimination 
of  nearly  all  monotones,  but  also,  in  the  Grand  Rapids  system, 
does  this  very  early  in  the  grades.  Then,  too,  with  the  early 
development  of  ability  in  the  handling  of  the  voice  on  the  part  of 
all  members,  the  class  as  a  whole  springs  forward  in  a  develop- 
ment otherwise  impossible.  All  this  is  very  evident  in  these 
schools.  The  Grand  Rapids  system  develops  the  musical  ability 
of  each  child  with  remarkable  uniformity. 

And  this  is  the  thing  in  which  we  are  most  interested.  So 
many  music  systems  do  little  for  the  less  musical  child.  Show 
me  the  results  of  the  poorest  third  of  a  music  class  and  I  can  esti- 
mate the  upper  groups,  as  well  as  the  care  with  which  the  work 
of  the  preceding  years  was  done. 

The  result  of  this  procedure  in  Grand  Rapids  is  that  the 
amount  of  individual  variation  within  a  given  group  is  reduced. 
One  of  the  strongest  proofs  of  the  fact  that  music  and  its  pre- 
sentation are  not  organized  as  are  many  other  subjects  is  to  be 
found  in  the  customary  and  significant,  tremendous  individual 
variations  within  given  groups.  Hence  the  comparative  uni- 
formity of  development  in  musical  ability  exhibited  in  Grand 
Rapids  is  all  the  more  noteworthy. 

The  Grand  Rapids  high  schools  do  not  require  music,  and 
their  choral  and  other  musical  organizations  are  all  on  a  volun- 
tary membership  basis.  They  are  not,  then,  to  be  judged  as 
compared  with  work  required  of  all  pupils,  but  will  be  taken  up 
under  a  later  heading. 

In  summary,  the  work  observed  in  Grand  Rapids  certainly 
meets  the  requirements  of  good  work  in  music  so  far  as  the 
recreational  element  is  concerned.  And  this  is  due  in  no  small 
degree  to  the  noteworthy  success  of  the  system  in  its  early  elimi- 
nation of  monotones — in  its  early  reduction  of  the  extent  of 
individual  differences.  Practically  all  the  children  sing  and  en- 
joy their  singing — and  this  is  of  first  importance. 

The  Educational  Aspect 

The  educational  aspect  of  any  instruction  may  be  pointed 
out  in  the  development  of  certain  habits,  or  abilities.  Music 
classes — as  all  others — should  develop  individual  attention.  A 
cultural  type  of  enjoyment,  a  refined  "leisure-time  occupation", 
is  also  to  be  created  through  pleasant  experience  with  the  best 
of  carefully  selected  music.  AF1  these,  and  also  the  development 
of  the  appreciation  of  the  rendition  of  other  musicians,  are  pe- 
culiarly fostered  through  the  development  of  habits  of  good  tone 
quality  and  interpretation  in  singing.  Children  trained  along 


MUSIC  149 

the  lines  above  mentioned  are  well  equipped  but  they  need  one 
thing  more — the  ability  readily  to  take  up  new  and  more  ad- 
vanced material  after  leaving  the  school  which  has  developed  in 
them  the  desire  so  to  do.  Hence  the  necessity,  from  but  one 
standpoint,  for  thorough  training  in  sight  reading. 

The  problem  of  individual  concentration,  in  so  far  as  it  is 
peculiar  to  the  music  class,  does  not  frequently  present  itself 
below  the  eighth  grade.  A  single  exception  was  met  (in  one  of 
the  seventh  grades)  in  which  it  existed  in  any  widespread  form. 
Otherwise  it  was  found  only  here  and  there,  and  then  in  the  case 
of  pupils  musically  unable,  not  representative  of  the  system.  For 
instance,  I  examined  eight-one  pupils  in  the  first  half  of  the 
eighth  grade  and  seventy-two  in  the  second  half  at  the  Union 
School.  Of  these,  eleven  pupils  did  not  comprehend  a  single  one 
of  the  thirty-seven  rhythms  given.  After  seeing  the  work  of  the 
lower  grades  in  Grand  Rapids  I  can  not  believe  that  these  eleven 
children  grew  up  in  the  system. 

Nearly  all  the  work  in  music,  in  summary,  exhibited  that 
personal  concentration  from  each  members  of  the  class  without 
which  no  musical  organization  will  do  its  best  work,  or  will 
make  its  most  rapid  progress.  Nor  is  this  the  individual  appli- 
cation of  members  of  a  class  in  mathematics,  or  literature,  or 
history: — it  is  a  concentration  which  is  individual  yet  social,  with 
initiative  subject  to  the  will  of  another,  a  concentration  coupled 
with  recognition  of  the  individual  as  but  a  part  of  a  larger 
whole.  From  its  very  nature  a  high  type  of  group  work  in  music 
would  seem  to  demand  a  greater  amount  of  concentration,  if 
anything,  than  some  of  the  other  subjects.  And  on  the  whole  this 
demand  is  met  in  this  system. 

The  second  phase  of  the  educational  aspect  was  expressed 
above  in  these  words :  "A  cultural  type  of  enjoyment,  a  refined 
'leisure-time  occupation'  is  to  be  created  through  pleasant  ex- 
perience with  the  best  carefully  selected  music."  This  oppor- 
tunity is  afforded  the  children  of  Grand  Rapids  for  they  have  not 
only  vocal,  but  also  instrumental  training.  Reading  as  well  as 
they  do,  I  believe  they  could  be  given  a  great  deal  more  material 
to  advantage,  but  this  will  be  taken  up  under  the  discussion  of 
sight  reading.  The  instrumental  work  will  be  brought  out  un- 
der the  heading  of  special  organizations. 

So  far,  we  have  had  in  mind  that  "best  of  carefully  selected 
music"  which  the  children  themselves  produce.  Yet  that  vocal 
or  instrumental  music  which  is  usable  in  the  school  is  but  a 
portion  of  the  whole  field  of  vocal  or  instrumental  literature,  nor 
do  these  two  exhaust  the  library  of  the  musical  compositions 
that  are  of  essential  worth.  All  branches  of  the  musical  art 
should  be  brought  before  the  children  in  the  public  schools. 


150  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

Perhaps  this  could  not  be  done,  even  in  an  elementary  fashion 
in  the  grades  alone.  Let  the  work  be  continued  in  the  high 
schools  or  junior  high  schools,  for  if  the  cultural  and  other 
benefits  of  music  study  are  as  universal  as  commonly  believed 
why  not  continue  systematic  music  instruction  into  the  upper 
school  ? 

The  use  of  victrolas,  player  pianos,  etc.,  has  by  no  means 
come  to  its  own.  They  might  well  be  systematically  used  to  the 
end  of  rounding  out,  of  completing,  the  acquaintance  of  the  child 
with  some  of  the  best  in  all  branches  or  at  least  the  chief 
branches  of  the  musical  art. 

The  third  phase  of  the  educational  aspect  goes  behind  this 
consideration  of  the  materials  used  and  considers  the  way  in 
which  they  are  used.  In  this  I  mean  to  refer  especially  to  tone 
quality  and  interpretation. 

The  tone  quality  is  good,  in  several  schools  superior,  and 
of  remarkably  even  character  throughout.  But  a  single  group 
doing  decidedly  inferior  tone  work  was  found  and  this  may  have 
been  shown  at  a  disadvantage.  Mr.  Beattie  is  fortunate  in  hav- 
ing a  system  not  so  large  as  to  render  it  impossible  to  keep  in 
intimate  touch  with  the  various  units.  And  in  the  above-men- 
tioned and  remarkably  uniform  good  tone  quality  is  evidenced 
this  characteristic  outcome  of  careful  and  competent  super- 
vision. 

The  matter  of  good  interpretation,  too,  is  carefully  handled 
though  the  results  are  not  so  exceptionally  noteworthy  as  those 
in  the  matter  of  tone  quality  mentioned  above.  Artistic  inter- 
pretation of  children's  songs  is  a  matter  in  which  the  ordinary 
teacher  and  usually  the  average  supervisor  needs  capable  assist- 
ance. The  interpretative  work  visited  was  good  and  mpre  than 
meets  the  general  requirements  of  the  work.  It  is  only  to  be 
hoped  that  Mr.  Beattie  will  be  able  to  bring  this  to  the  level  of 
the  superior  type  of  result  mentioned  elsewhere. 

The  fourth  and  last  phase  of  the  educational  aspect  takes  up 
the  matter  of  sight  reading.  While  the  value  of  this  ability  is 
self-apparent  it  is  not  a  matter  of  first  importance,  nor  is  it  made 
so  in  these  schools.  Sight  reading  rests  on  the  ability  of  the 
child  to  interpret  or  duplicate  various  grades  of  rhythms  and 
intervals.  Scales  were  made  out  in  each  of  these  and  tests  given 
the  children  in  such  a  way  that  each  child  in  each  test — and 
very  few  took  both — could  make  a  possible  one  hundred  points. 
Three  thousand  seven  hundred  and  twelve  children  in  St.  Louis, 
Grand  Rapids,  and  the  University  Elementary  and  High  Schools 
of  the  University  of  Chicago  were  given  the  tests.  A  tabulation 
of  these  results  established  certain  medians,  or  representative 


MUSIC  151 

scores.    These  together  with  the  records  made  by  the  1587  Grand 
Rapids  children  given  the  tests  appear  below : 

TABLE   XXVII 

Median  scores  for  Sight  Reading  in  Music  in  Grades  5-1  to  8-2  In- 
clusive for  3712  Children  in  St.  Louis,  Grand  Rapids,  and  the  University 
Elementary  and  High  Schools  of  the  University  of  Chicago. 

Grade V-l          V-2          VI-1         VI-2       VIM       VII-2     VIII-1  VIII-2 

INTERVALS 


Lowest  i 

score  0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Median  ( 
Score      j 

50%  of  group    <    9 

9 
16 

27 

8 
16 

24 

10 
18 
28 

11 
17 

27 

9 
20 

31 

9 
18 

30 

14 
22 

32 

Highest 

Score                     34 

82 

93 

69 

54 

96 

88 

66 

RHYTHM 

Lowest  Score  ...  10000000 


Median 


5      10      10      10      8      6      10      10 


QO.    f  50%  of  group  ^11      17      16      17      17      13      17      19 
Score  »  (16     26      24     27      27      24     26     27 

Highest  Score  25      67      41      67      78      61      57      44 


TABLE   XXVIII 

Median  Scores  for  Sight  Reading  in  Music  in  Grades  5-1  to  8-2  in- 
clusive for  1,587  children  in  the  Grand  Rapids  Schools. 

Grade V-l          V-2          VI-1         VI-2       VIM       VII-2     VIII-1  VIII-2 

INTERVALS 


Lowest  Score 

o 

o 

0 

o 

o 

o 

0 

0 

Me0clieanM0%of^°"P 

(   4 
(15 

9 
16 

29 

7 
14      . 

25 

12 
19 
30 

12 
17 

27 

9 
18 
31 

8 
19 

29 

11 
21 

26 

Highest    Score    

28 

82 

64 

69 

50 

96 

48 

54 

RHYTHM 

Lowest  Score  

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

10  6  8  6  5  10 

15  13  13  11  12  17  18 

22  17  21  18  20  24  28 

Highest  Score  25     42  33  40  46  45  46  47 

The  grades  are  grouped  by  semesters,  or  half  years,  and  the 
number  given  is  the  median  or  most  representative  record  made 
in  a  given  group.  A  comparison  of  the  two  tables  will  show  that 
the  pupils  examined  are  normal  in  their  ability  in  intervals  but 
below  normal  in  their  ability  in  rhythm. 

The  following  diagram  based  on  the  figures  given  above 
makes  clear  the  situation. 

An  analysis  of  the  Grand  Rapids  results  shows  that  while 
the  rhythm  curve  is  below  average  the  interval  curve  would  be 


152  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


DIAGRAM    LXII — Median    scores    for    sight    reading    in    music    for    1587    children    in 

Grand   Rapids   and   for   3712    children   in    St.    Louis,    Grand   Rapids   and 

the  School  of  Education,   Chicago. 


MUSIC  153 

considerably  above  average  were  it  not  for  the  results  coming 
from  Turner  School.  This  is  shown  in  the  following  table  of 
medians. 

TABLE   XXIX 

Comparison  of  median  scores  in  intervals  for  the  Turner  School  of 
Grand  Rapids,  the  composite  group  of  schools  and  the  best  score  in 
Grand  Rapids. 

Grade V-l          V-2          VI-1         VI-2       VII-1       VII-2     VIII-1  VIII-2 

Turner  Score  4  9  ....  17  14  9 

Composite  Score  ( 

(St.  Louis,  Chicago    ^9  16  16  18  17  20  18  22 

and  Grand  Rapids)....  (. 
Best  Grand  Rapids 

Score  . . 15*  25**         17*  30*  18*  27*  25*  22* 

*  Sigsbee   School. 
**  Lafayette  School. 

No  other  school  turned  in  results  so  consistently  below 
average  as  did  the  Turner  School.  Its  cause  I  cannot  point  out 
but  it  is  surely  evident  that  here  is  a  weak  spot  which  needs 
strengthening. 

The  sight  reading,  then,  seems  for  the  most  part  to  be  made 
up  of  a  little  above  the  average  strength  in  intervals,  coupled 
with  weakness  in  the  handling  of  rhythms.  Yet  I  saw  certain 
classes  do  rather  remarkable  work  in  sight  reading  from  their 
books,  though  very  few  classes  were  tried  out  in  this  manner. 
The  contradiction  of  figures  and  observation  may  in  part  be  ex- 
plained as  follows. 

The  children  do  not  sing  a  great  many  songs,  but  they  sing 
all  these  well.  I  had  constantly  the  impression  that  I  could  call 
on  a  class  for  any  song  they  had  had  all  year,  and  find  them  able 
to  sing  it  from  memory.  There  is  great  value  in  redoing  what 
has  been  previously  done  in  careful  manner.  But  the  develop- 
ment of  ability  to  read  music  calls  for  two  steps:  (1)  slow 
careful  preliminary  steps,  followed  or  interspersed  between  (2) 
practice  in  actual  rapid  reading  in  which  there  is  not  much  stop 
or  drill  on  hard  places  or  mistakes.  I  believe  Mr.  Beattie  could 
give  his  schools  throughout  more  material,  to  be  used  in  the 
latter  fashion,  and  to  great  advantage.  I  believe  its  absence  to 
be  the  cause  of  the  marks  made  by  the  children  in  the  tests. 

Special  Organizations 

The  schools  have  rather  more  and  larger  special  organiza- 
tions than  the  average.  This  is  due  to  the  vigor  with  which  in- 
strumental work  is  pushed  and  to  the  absence  of  required  music 
in  high  school.  All  are  doing  good  work  apparently  but  of  es- 


154          SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

pecial  worth  is  the  orchestra  at  Central  High  School.    Few  high 
schools  have  better. 

Conclusion 

The  music  work  in  the  schools  of  Grand  Rapids  meets 
many  if  not  all  the  requirements  of  good  work.  Much  of  the 
work  is  done  in  distinctly  superior  manner.  The  granting  of 
high-school  credits  for  outside  music  work  has  been  in  operation 
for  some  time,  and  has  proved  very  successful.  Mr.  Beattie 
would  do  well  to  organize  in  writing  his  methods  of  granting 
credit  for  the  benefit  of  the  many  other  cities  about  to  grant 
similar  credit.  And  this  is  no  light  task,  for  it  involves  the 
making  out  of  approved  courses  of  study,  as  well  as  the  writing 
out  of  the  various  details  of  the  operation  of  the  scheme.  Such 
contributions,  based  on  the  experience  of  successful  operation, 
are  necessary  to  the  raising  of  the  cause  of  public-school  music 
to  a  science. 


CHAPTER  IX 

INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  ELE 
MENTARY  SCHOOLS 

John  F.  Bobbitt 


An  aggregate  of  about  two  weeks  was  spent  by  the  writer 
in  observation  of  the  work  of  the  elmentary  grades  and  in  con- 
ferences with  teachers,  principals,  and  supervisors,  concerning 
the  work  of  those  grades.  For  this  purpose  about  twenty  of  the 
larger  schools  were  visited.  The  time  was  insufficient  for  an 
exhaustive  examination  into  the  work  of  any  single  building. 
The  city  uses,  however,  a  uniform  course  of  study,  uniform  series 
of  textbooks  in  most  subjects,  and  the  work  of  the  various  build- 
ings is  well  supervised  from  the  central  administrative  offices. 
The  result  is  a  very  considerable  uniformity  of  practice  in  the 
majority  of  the  subjects,  the  work  differing  from  room  to  room 
more  in  quality  of  the  teaching  than  in  course  of  study  or  intent 
of  the  work.  It  is  felt,  therefore,  that  the  observations  of  por- 
tions of  the  work  in  all  the  grades  in  many  buildings  has  resulted 
in  a  fair  conception  of  what  the  city  is  attempting  to  do,  what 
it  is  actually  doing,  and  here  and  there  as  to  certain  things  that 
might  be  done  by  way  of  improving  the  programs  or  the  prac- 
tices in  the  work. 

In  general,  however,  it  must  first  be  said  that  the  profes- 
sional school  people  of  the  city  are  fully  alive  to  the  nature  of 
current  educational  problems;  that  they  have  been  and  are  in- 
dustriously and  conscientiously  grappling  with  the  problems ; 
and  that,  like  progressive  professional  people  throughout  the 
country,  as  they  adapt  and  adjust  the  work  year  after  year,  are 
solving  the  various  problems.  The  best  ideas  already  to  be 
found  in  the  work  of  the  city  in  connection  with  the  teaching  of 
each  of  the  subjects  cover  about  everything  that  we  can  here 
propose.  Our  primary  duty  turns  out  to  be  largely  the  agreeable 
one  of  choosing  ideas  and  proposals  already  advanced  by  the 


156  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

most  thoughtful  and  progressive  teachers  and  supervisors  of  the 
city,  and  of  reenforcing  some  of  the  most  important  of  these  with 
recommendations  here  and  there. 

Occasionally  we  shall  criticize.  And  we  shall  do  this  with 
the  greater  good-will  because  of  the  fact  that  on  the  whole  the 
work  observed  was  of  commendable  character.  In  many  respects 
it  falls  far  short  of  the  character  of  the  work  that  will  in  all  prob- 
ability be  found  in  Grand  Rapids  twenty  years  hence.  But,  on 
the  other  hand,  it  is  now  far  in  advance  of  the  character  of  work 
found  in  the  city  twenty  years  ago.  As  we  point  out  short- 
comings, therefore,  it  is  not  in  any  spirit  of  adverse  fault-finding 
criticism.  We  are  simply  pointing  to  possibilities  of  further 
improvement.  We  are  simply  attempting  to  reenforce  the  argu- 
ments and  efforts  of  those  now  working  within  the  system  who 
are  attempting  to  secure  these  very  same  improvements,  and  who 
will  secure  them  within  the  next  few  years  because  their  efforts 
are  rightly  directed. 

I.    READING  AND  LITERATURE 

Excepting  only  the  personal  association,  reading  is  certainly 
the  most  important  educational  exercise  in  our  public  schools. 
We  are  thinking  here,  in  this  discussion,  not  so  much  of  training 
in  the  art  of  reading  itself  as  of  the  humanistic  and  other  training 
that  results  from  the  use  of  the  art  of  reading.  We  wish  in  no 
degree  to  minimize  the  importance  of  training  in  the  art  itself, 
since  this  is  a  primordial  prerequisite  to  the  use  of  the  art  of 
reading  for  education  on  all  of  its  later  and  higher  levels.  We 
wish  to  give  due  emphasis  to  both  reading  for  the  sake  of  the 
mastery  of  the  art,  and  reading  for  the  sake  of  education,  intel- 
lectual, social,  moral,  occupational,  political,  humanitarian. 

It  happens,  however,  that  there  has  been  a  rather  unbal- 
anced emphasis  in  the  field.  We  have  given  large  attention  to 
the  elaboration  of  methods  of  teaching  the  simple  art  of  reading. 
We  have  placed  insufficient  emphasis  and  have  given  insufficient 
time  and  thought  to  the  use  of  reading  for  the  purpose  of  develop- 
ing and  expanding  the  personality  in  all  the  desirable  ways  in 
which  reading  may  be  made  to  serve  as  a  means.  We  have  not 
over  emphasized  the  mechanics  of  reading;  we  have  underem- 
phasized  the  educational  results  that  might  accrue  from  a  well- 
studied  use  of  available  reading.  We  have  not  elaborated  our 
methods  of  teaching  the  mechanics  of  reading  too  greatly ;  but 
in  elaborating  them  in  partial  isolation  from  the  training  needed 
for  later  and  higher  purposes  the  methods  have  tended  to  be 
artificial  and  beyond  the  primary  grades  relatively  inefficient 
even  for  the  purpose  of  teaching  the  mechanics  of  reading. 


INSTRUCTION  IN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  157 

Neither  purpose  is  well  taken  care  of  unless  a  proper  emphasis 
is  given  to  the  other ;  and  unless  both  are  developed  in  con- 
junction. 

This  general  criticism  of  a  situation  prevalent  throughout 
tfie  cities  of  the  country  is  mentioned  because  it  represents  the 
situation  in  Grand  Rapids  as  well.  The  writer  is  glad  to  state, 
however,  that  after  having  examined  into  the  reading  situation 
in  quite  a  number  of  cities  in  connection  with  the  work  of  various 
school  surveys,  he  has  yet  met  with  no  city  that  is  so  far  along 
the  road  toward  an  efficient  and  balanced  program  of  training  in 
and  through  reading  as  the  city  of  Grand  Rapids.  As  we  point 
to  further  possibilities  of  progress  it  is  done  with  the  conscious- 
ness that  already  great  progress  in  the  direction  of  our  recom- 
mendations has  been  made ;  and  that  the  leaders  of  progress  in 
the  city  are  already  fully  conscious  of  the  things  that  ought  to  be 
done ;  and  that  the  things  are  already  being  done  about  as  rapidly 
as  conditions  will  permit. 

The  Primary  Reading 

The  efforts  of  the  primary  grades  must  necessarily  be  de- 
voted largely  to  mastery  of  the  art  of  reading.  The  city  has 
adopted  and  in  general  is  efficiently  using  a  good  standardized 
system  of  teaching  the  little  people  how  to  read  during  the  first 
few  weeks  of  their  presence  in  the  first  primary  grade.  That  the 
system  employed  is  on  the  whole  a  good  one  is  proven  by  the 
fact  that  the  children  do  learn  to  read  within  a  comparatively 
short  time.  The  system  in  itself  is,  however,  rather  mechanical 
and  lends  itself  to  abuse  on  the  part  of  teachers  who  lack  initia- 
tive and  resourcefulness  in  the  use  of  materials  outside  of  those 
presented  by  the  "system". 

At  this  stage  of  the  learning  a  large  amount  of  mechanical 
exercises  is  indispensable.  The  teacher's  problem  is  to  make 
them  as  varied  and  interesting  as  possible ;  and  to  keep  the  drill, 
even  though  large,  incidental  to  the  live  interests  in  the 
stories  themselves  that  are  told  and  read.  Even  in  this  early 
stage  of  reading,  it  is  the  thought,  the  story,  that  needs  to  be  the 
primary  thing  in  the  consciousness  of  the  children  with  the 
language,  the  vocabulary,  the  word-recognition,  etc.,  but  modes 
of  expressing  the  story  which  occupies  the  center  of  conscious- 
ness. 

The  mechanical  basic  system  now  used  in  the  introductory 
work  is  distinctly  lacking  within  itself  in  the  story  element.  A 
good  teacher  can  develop  much  interest  through  the  learning  and 
the  repetition  in  various  ways  of  the  little  basic  rhymes,  and  can 
keep  the  interest  thus  developed  warm  long  enough  to  cover  the 


158  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

mechanical  and  relatively  meaningless  practice  exercises.  The 
good  teacher,  however,  finds  it  necessary  also  to  supplement  with 
stories  and  with  the  reading  prompted  by  the  story  interest. 
While  both  stories  and  the  little  jingles  now  used  may  both  be 
employed  as  bases  for  practice  exercises,  the  story  is  generally 
better  for  the  purpose. 

In  conferences  with  teachers  the  desire  was  frequently  ex 
pressed  for  a  basic  reading  system  that  was  less  mechanical 
than  the  present  one,  and  which  employed  the  story  element  in 
larger  measure.  These  teachers  and  principals  have  already 
discerned  the  need.  Taking  the  work  as  a  whole  through  the 
city,  it  seems  clear  that  the  story  element  should  be  larger  so  as 
better  to  serve  as  a  basis  for  the  necessarily  rather  voluminous 
and  varied  mechanical  drill.  The  reading  should  not  grow  out  of 
this  drill  as  is  too  often  the  case ;  but  the  drill  should  grow  out 
of  the  reading.  A  composite  method  using  elements  of  the  one 
used  at  present,  and  using  elements  of  other  methods,  based  in 
the  beginning  upon  the  reading  furnished  by  books  from  two  or 
three  reading  series,  should  probably  be  devised,  by  way  of 
taking  the  next  step  in  the  natural  evolution  of  methods  within 
the  city. 

After  the  introductory  work  is  covered,  the  best  work  in  the 
city  that  was  met  with  represents  a  superior  type  of  work.  In 
the  best  schools  one  finds  the  children  covering  during  the  first 
year,  six,  eight,  or  ten  primers  and  first  readers  of  varied  types 
and  subject-matter.  Certain  cases,  however,  were  found  where 
the  class  is  covering  during  this  entire  year  only  three  or  four 
readers  and  primers.  This  is  altogether  insufficient.  In  such 
case  the  class  has  been  too  long  in  getting  under  way;  and 
where  work  is  slow,  mechanical,  and  impoverished  in  the  early 
months  of  the  year,  the  condition  of  affairs  is  likely  to  continue 
to  the  end. 

The  city  has  been  reasonably  generous  in  supplying  needed 
reading  material  in  sets  large  enough  for  class  use.  There  is  an 
average  of  about  ten  sets  of  supplementary  books  for  each  first 
grade  through  the  city.  These  have  been  chosen,  however,  in  a 
great  variety  of  ways.  The  assortment  at  certain  buildings, 
therefore,  is  very  much  better  than  that  to  be  found  at  other 
buildings.  Certain  of  the  buildings  are  not  now  using  all  of  the 
material  with  which  they  are  supplied.  Other  buildings  are 
using  about  all  that  they  have,  and  could  use  more  if  it  were 
available. 

One  teacher  says :  "Every  Friday  afternoon  a  different 
child  is  chosen  to  read  a  story  to  the  room,  the  child  having  had 
opportunity  for  a  previous  reading  and  study  of  the  story." 
Where  rooms  are  generously  supplied  with  a  great  variety  of 


INSTRUCTION  IN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  159 

single  library  copies  of  books  adapted  to  this  grade,  the  method 
is  an  excellent  one  and  serves  various  purposes.  The  child  who 
must  choose  his  own  story  will  often  read  through  a  large  quan- 
tity of  material  by  way  of  rinding  the  story  that  he  wants  to  read 
to  the  class.  This  in  itself  is  excellent,  and  in  the  oral  reading 
he  has  a  real  audience,  and  his  primary  effort  is  to  make  them 
understand  the  story.  The  plan  is  thus  good  for  both  prepara- 
tory and  oral  reading.  While  doubtless  now  used  in  many  schools 
of  the  city,  it  is  one  that  can  be  recommended  for  all  and  for 
more  frequent  use  than  merely  once  a  week. 

The  introductory  work  of  mastering  the  simple  mechanics 
of  reading  covers  the  first  two  or  three  years.  The  system  be- 
gun in  the  first  grade  should  probably  be  continued  in  an  ex- 
panded fashion  through  the  second.  For  this  reason  the  super- 
visor of  the  first-grade  work  should  usually  also  supervise  that 
of  the  second  grade. 

One  second  grade  visited  has  read  during  the  year 
seventeen  sets  of  books  already,  with  time  enough  to  read  three 
more  sets  before  the  end  of  the  year,  making  twenty  in  all. 
This  represents  what  is  possible  in  most  schools,  and  what  is 
desirable  in  all.  In  another  second-grade  class  in  a  neighboring 
district  with  not  dissimilar  population,  the  corresponding  second- 
grade  class  has  read  less  than  five  books.  This  latter  type  of 
work  represents  a  paucity  of  intellectual  nourishment,  and  at  the 
same  time  a  deficiency  in  that  reading  practice  on  the  side  of  its 
mechanics  which  is  necessary  for  speed,  facility,  good  under- 
standing, and  good  habits  of  reading.  Since  there  is  an  average 
of  ten  or  twelve  sets  of  supplementary  readers  for  the  second 
grade  in  the  buildings  of  the  city,  the  facilities  are  already  sup- 
plied for  a  larger  amount  of  reading  in  the  second  grade  than 
seems  now  to  be  the  average  of  practice.  Both  averages  need 
to  be  raised.  While  there  is  much  reading  material  on  hand, 
there  should  be  even  more;  and  while  much  is  now  being 
covered  in  the  school  of  average  accomplishment,  much  more 
could  and  should  be  covered. 

The  Reading  of  Intermediate  and  Grammer  Grades 

The  work  in  reading  is  laid  out  in  the  course  of  study  in  such 
a  way  as  to  emphasize  an  intensive  study  of  selections  presented 
in  the  reading  textbooks.  The  textbook  series  used  from  the 
fifth  grade  on  to  the  end  of  the  eighth  is  of  such  a  degree  of 
difficulty,  and  the  mode  of  treatment  of  the  various  lessons  is  so 
elaborated  and  systematized  within  the  text  itself  that  one  finds 
here  another  influence  tending  to  emphasize  the  intensive  study 
of  the  difficult  and  often  inappropriate  selections.  As  a  result  it 


160  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

is  quite  clear  that  the  consciously  directed  reading  work  of  the 
grammar  grades, — this  leaves  out  of  the  account  for  the  moment 
the  library  reading, — is  distinctly  inferior  for  the  purposes  to 
that  of  the  primary  grades.  One  finds  second  and  third-year 
classes  reading  a  dozen  supplementary  sets  of  books.  One  does 
not,  however,  find  the  eighth-grade  classes  reading  a  dozen  sets 
of  supplementary  reading  books.  They  ought  to  read  more,  not 
less.  If  it  is  objected  that  the  older  classes  have  many  things  to 
do  because  they  are  carrying  many  subjects,  while  the  earlier 
classes  have  fewer  things  to  do,  we  must  say  that  the  range  of 
things  to  which  attention  is  given  is  really  much  the  same  in  the 
lower  and  in  the  upper  grades.  Simply,  the  matters  are  taken 
care  of  in  fewer  classes  in  the  earlier  grades,  and  are  differenti- 
ated into  more  specialized  subjects  in  the  later  grades.  Second 
and  third-grade  reading,  for  example,  covers  matters  that  are 
geographical,  historical,  scientific,  literary,  etc.  In  the  later 
grades  the  readings  are  classified  and  assigned  to  different  sub- 
jects. In  our  consideration  of  the  reading  practice,  however,  we 
have  regard  here  for  that  reading  that  is  done  in  connection  with 
the  geography  work,  history  work,  etc.,  as  well  as  that  done  in 
the  literature  classes.  In  the  upper  grades  there  is  more  text- 
book study  and  less  of  the  experiential  education  that  comes 
through  a  wide,  varied,  and  reasonably  voluminous  reading  ex- 
perience. The  later  grades  need  to  widen  this  reading  experi- 
ence beyond  that  of  the  lower  grades,  not  to  narrow  it. 

Whereas  the  first  three  grades  have  available  an  average 
of  about  ten  sets  of  supplementary  reading  material,  the  seventh 
grade  has  only  about  seven  sets,  and  the  eighth  grade  only  about 
six.  Instead  of  the  quantity  of  reading  material  available  for  the 
later  grades  growing  more  meagre,  it  should  grow  in  quite  the 
reverse  direction.  There  should  be  more  to  read  and  on  a  greater 
variety  of  subjects,  not  less.  While  it  can  be  said  that  the  com- 
munity has  been  much  more  generous  with  its  schools  in  the 
matter  of  supplementary  reading  all  along  the  line  than  is  the 
average  of  cities  in  general,  yet  it  must  be  said  that  the  movement 
which  has  for  a  number  of  years  been  clearly  under  way  is  yet 
far  from  having  reached  its  final  stage  of  adequate  development. 
Much  yet  needs  to  be  done  by  way  of  supplying  the  later  grades 
with  needed  reading  materials.  This  reading  needs  to  be  of  such 
a  varied  character  that  the  whole  world  in  its  multitudinous 
aspects  can  be  made  to  pass  in  review  before  the  inner  vision  of 
the  rising  generation  as  the  chief  education  which  they  will  get 
from  books. 

The  varied  purposes  of  the  reading  experience  in  the  later 
grades  have  as  yet  been  insufficiently  defined  by  school  authori- 
ties and  teachers.  Reading  as  a  mode  of  formative  experience 


INSTRUCTION  IN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  161 

shaping  the  various  aspects  of  the  personality  is  not  yet  suffi- 
ciently valued  within  the  city,  it  would  appear.  An  unduly 
large  amount  of  attention  and  effort  is  given  to  the  storing  up  of 
items  of  information  within  the  intellects  of  the  children.  There 
is  yet  an  insufficient  faith  in  the  power  of  wide  reading  experi- 
ence to  develop  equally  valuable  types  of  intellectual  products 
along  with  the  various  other  desirable  results  of  such  reading. 
As  in  most  cities,  there  is  yet  a  larger  faith  in  learning  things  as 
a  mode  of  education  rather  than  experience  as  a  mode  of  educa- 
tion. As  the  city  develops  the  experiential  development  type 
of  training,  it  will  develop  fullness  and  width  and  vitality  of 
reading  experience  as  one  of  the  most  important  forms. 

One  grammar-grade  teacher  said  of  the  text  material  that 
is  now  assigned  for  the  work :  "It  is  too  heavy.  It  is  grown-up 
literature,  not  literature  for  children.  Except  for  certain  selec- 
tions, it  is  not  interesting  to  the  children/'  It  is  very  evident  that 
this  is  the  case.  Even  when  the  theme  of  the  story  presented  is 
one  that  is  appropriate  to  the  maturity  and  interests  of  the 
children  of  the  grade,  it  is  too  often  presented  simply  as  a  con- 
densed series  of  fragments  of  the  original  story  and  in  a  style 
adapted  to  adults  and  not  to  children.  Very  many  of  the  selec- 
tions too  have  been  included  in  the  list  for  purposes  that  are 
altogether  legitimate,  but  apparently  through  a  mistaken  judg- 
ment as  to  the  kind  of  materials  that  are  appropriate  to  the 
maturity  of  the  grade. 

Certain  of  the  most  capable  eighth-grade  teachers  met  with 
are  using  in  the  eighth  grade  stories  of  Greek  mythology,  Greek 
hero  tales,  folk  tales,  certain  of  the  more  mature  fables  and 
fairy  tales,  historical  stories,  fiction  dealing  with  the  Middle 
Ages,  fiction  dealing  with  American  history,  etc.  When  inquiry 
was  made  as  to  how  the  work  was  carried  on,  generally  the 
teachers  had  to  say  that  they  lacked  sets  of  books  for  the  work, 
and  were  depending  on  the  few  copies  supplied  by  the  library. 
For  reading  Lamb's  Tales  from  Shakespeare,  there  was  no  set 
of  books  available.  For  the  class  reading  of  vital  modern  dramas 
so  as  to  educate  the  population  to  a  level  of  appreciation  higher 
than  that  now  represented  by  the  ubiquitous  "movies,"  no  mod- 
ern dramatic  literature  is  made  available  for  the  work.  Pupils 
that  attend  the  "movies"  with  great  frequency  and  appreciation 
sit  sufficiently  listless  and  passive  in  the  reading  classes.  It  is 
true  it  will  cost  the  city  something  to  supply  the  children  in  the 
schools  with  that  wealth  of  interesting,  vital  reading  experience 
which  they  need  for  their  full  humanistic  development.  It  will 
not,  however,  cost  the  people  of  the  city  anything  like  what  they 
are  now  perfectly  willing  to  pay  for  the  support  of  interesting 


162  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

but  educationally  relatively  valueless  motion-pictures  as  supplied 
by  our  commercial  agencies. 

One  of  the  buildings  in  the  city  was  observed  to  be  making 
a  studied  attempt  to  systematize  the  reading  so  as  to  make  it 
cover  a  wide  range  of  desirable  experience.  A  series  of  nature 
study  readings  has  been  arranged,  one  book  for  each  grade  be- 
ginning with  the  second.  Parallel  with  this  there  is  a  series  of 
historical  readings  definitely  laid  out  for  each  grade,  and  a  third 
series  of  geographical  readings.  The  plan  seems  not  to  have 
been  systematically  worked  out  beyond  this  point.  It  should, 
however,  be  extended  to  cover  biography,  inventions,  industry 
and  commerce,  travels,  hygiene  and  sanitation,  poetry,  fiction, 
drama,  etc.  Reading  opportunities  in  most  of  these  fields  are 
lacking  in  most  of  the  schools, — except,as  supplied  by  the  public 
library  in  single  copies,  and  which  therefore  do  not  lend  them- 
selves to  class  use. 

Methods 

Where  reading  selections  are  unsuitable  because  of  the  ma- 
turity of  the  sentiments  expressed,  or  because  of  their  not  having 
been  led  up  to  and  prepared  for  by  a  sufficient  wealth  of  previous 
reading  experience,  teaching  methods  are  often  sufficiently  in- 
efficient for  training  in  good  reading  habits,  appreciation,  and 
understanding.  So  many  words,  allusions,  figures  of  speech,  etc., 
have  to  be  explained,  and  the  mature  adult  sentiments  have  to  be 
so  fully  discussed,  that  sometimes  but  little  real  reading  is  ac- 
complished. Now  it  is  a  well-known  law  of  education  that  it  is 
only  practice  in  doing  a  thing  that  trains  one  for  doing  that 
thing.  And  what  is  more,  it  is  only  practice  in  doing  the  thing 
in  the  way  that  it  is  to  be  used  that  will  train  one  to  do  the  thing 
in  the  way  that  is  desired.  Explaining,  talking,  dictionary  work, 
using  words  in  sentences,  etc.,  are  not  reading.  Each  of  them 
has  a  proper  place,  though  when  the  work  is  well  done  it  is 
minor  and  incidental.  When  they  are  so  much  emphasized  as  to 
consume  the  major  portion  or  even  a  large  portion  of  time  and 
effort,  one  finds  a  clear  symptom  of  lack  of  previous  preparation 
for  this  work  on  the  part  of  the  class  during  previous  years,  or 
an  improper  selection  for  the  present  work  of  the  class,  or  both. 

The  nature  of  the  selections,  especially  those  of  the  grammar 
grades,  has  brought  about  and  made  necessary  the  use  of  such 
undesirable  methods  at  the  present  time  in  the  schools  of  the 
city.  The  way  out  is  a  more  complete  formulation  of  the  pur- 
poses of  using  reading  as  a  mode  of  education,  and  the  selection 
of  a  more  complete  and  better  graded  series  of  reading  materials. 
For  either  the  formulation  of  the  curriculum  or  the  determina- 


INSTRUCTION  IN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  163 

tion  of  methods,  one  must  first  know  what  one  is  after.     The 
school  organization  has  not  yet  adequately  defined  its  purposes. 

Silent  Reading 

The  importance  of  silent  reading  is  referred  to  in  the  pub- 
lished manual  only  in  connection  with  the  reading  work  of  the 
fourth  grade.  The  statement  is  general,  and  probably  is  intended 
to  apply  to  all  of  the  later  grades.  The  manual,  however,  does 
not  sufficiently  emphasize  it,  and  it  consequently  receives  rather 
insufficient  emphasis  in  the  schools  in  general.  It  is  a  matter, 
however,  that  is  taken  care  of  automatically  as  the  volume  of 
reading  experience  is  increased.  While  the  class  work  at  present 
is  given  mainly  to  oral  reading  and  discussion,  yet  if  the  reading 
program  is  widened  in  ways  herein  recommended  the  greater 
portion  of  it  must  of  necessity  be  silent  reading  experience. 

Almost  all  of  the  reading  of  adults  is  for  thought,  for  infor- 
mation, and  for  imaginative  experience.  For  these  purposes 
silent  reading  is  more  effective  and  more  expeditious.  Except 
for  a  few  types  of  people  who  need  it  as  a  part  of  their  vocational 
preparation,  oral  reading  is  so  little  used  as  not  to  warrant  spe- 
cial training  after  the  primary  grades  are  passed. 

Stories  Read  or  Told  to  Pupils 

Throughout  the  printed  course  of  study  large  emphasis  is 
placed  upon  the  telling  or  reading  of  stories  and  poems  to  the 
pupils  by  the  teacher.  The  first-grade  outline  specifies  six  kinds 
of  material,  and  the  eighth-grade  outline  seven  kinds  of  material 
to  be  given  ih  this  oral  way. 

It  would  seem  to  be  better  for  most  purposes,  at  least,  for 
the  children  to  read  the  stories,  poems,  etc.,  themselves.  In 
general,  teacher-labor  is  expensive,  and  must  be  used  for  a  large 
variety  of  purposes  for  which  books  cannot  serve  as  substitutes. 
When  a  book  .can  be  made  to  serve  as  a  substitute,  it  would  ap- 
pear that  the  method  would  be  much  more  economical  and  for 
most  purposes  just  as  serviceable. 

The  writer  is  able  to  find  but  one  major  justifiable  reason 
for  a  teacher's  reading  the  stories  and  poems  to  the  pupils.  One's 
pronunciation,  mode  of  utterance,  and  auditory  imagery  are 
shaped  in  large  part  by  what  one  hears.  To  listen  to  the  reading 
of  a  teacher  of  finished  pronunciation,  enunciation,  etc.,  is  an 
essential  element  in  training  pupils  in  the  pronunciation  of  words 
that  have  not  yet  become  portions  of  their  active  speaking  voca- 
bulary. To  listen  to  a  good  voice  is  part  of  the  necessary  train- 
ing in  the  right  control  of  the  voice.  A  teacher  should  therefore 


164  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

read  to  the  pupils.  It  is  more  important  for  their  education  than 
that  thejr  do  the  oral  reading  themselves. 

The  amount  of  such  oral  reading  by  the  teacher  should  be 
adjusted  to  the  needs  of  the  pupils.  In  regions  where  the 
children  are  of  immigrant  stock  and  unused  to  hearing  properly 
spoken  English  in  their  homes  or  on  the  playgrounds,  there 
probably  should  be  a  large  amount  of  such  reading,  always 
dealing  with  stories  or  informational  articles  that  strongly  ap- 
peal to  the  children.  In  schools  where  the  children  come  from 
native  American  homes,  it  is  probable  that  not  a  great  deal  of 
such  reading  is  needed.  In  general,  the  ordinary  classroom 
speech  of  the  teacher  will  be  sufficient  for  the  purpose. 

It  cannot  be  urged  that  the  imaginative  experience  accom- 
panying the  reading  is  more  vivid  or  more  effective  when  one  is 
listening  to  the  oral  reading  of  another  than  it  is  when  one  is 
reading  the  matter  silently.  This  may  occasionally  be  so  in  the 
case  of  selections  that  are  oratorical,  impassioned,  or  for  em- 
phasizing the  rhythmic  and  lyric  aspects  of  poetry;  but  with 
most  types  of  reading  it  is  desirable  that  pupils  should  be  trained 
through  practice  to  get  the  full  experience  through  silent  reading 
without  having  to  depend  upon  others  for  intensification  of  his 
reading  experience.  To  be  able  to  do  much  reading  wholly  inde- 
pendent of  others  is  one  of  the  ends  of  the  training. 

The  Grand  Rapids  Public  Library 

Among  the  things  needed  for  the  effective  conduct  of  public 
education,  after  teachers  and  buildings  have  been  supplied,  the 
most  important  doubtless  is  a  supply  of  reading  materials  ade- 
quate in  quantity  and  suitable  in  quality  for  the  children  of  the 
different  levels  of  advancement.  In  connection  with  the  topics 
of  reading,  history,  geography,  science,  etc.,  we  have  discussed 
the  textbooks  and  supplementary  reading  sets.  A  no  less  im- 
portant factor,  however,  where  the  work  is  adequately  developed 
is  the  educational  co-operative  work  of  the  city  public  library. 
In  this  respejct  Grand  Rapids  is  fortunate  in  a  highly  unusual 
degree. 

To  begin  with,  the  form  of  organization  is  excellent  for  the 
purpose.  The  library  is  governed  by  a  board  that  is  sufficiently 
separate  from  those  who  control  the  school  affairs  proper,  and 
yet  it  is  sufficiently  linked  to  the  educational  organization  to 
secure  thoroughgoing  co-operation.  Of  the  six  members  of  the 
Board  of  Library  Commissioners,  five  are  elected  by  the  citi- 
zens at  large,  including  women,  on  a  non-partisan  ballot,  and 
the  sixth  member  is  the  superintendent  of  the  public  schools, 
ex  officio.  At  the  present  moment  the  superintendent  of  the 


INSTRUCTION  IN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  165 

city  schools  is  the  president  of  the  library  board.  The  title  to 
all  property  of  the  library  rests  with  the  Board  of  Education. 

For  more  than  twenty  years  the  city  library  has  been  plac- 
ing deposit  and  branch  libraries  in  all  of  the  school  buildings  in 
the  city.  The  legally  connected  and  closely  co-operating  boards 
of  education  and  of  library  are  thus  by  means  of  a  single  service 
systematically  taking  care  of  the  reading  opportunities  of  all  of 
the  people  of  the  city,  both  juvenile  and  adult.  In  the  purchase 
and  management  of  books  the  board  of  education  takes  care 
primarily  of  the  desk  books,  the  supplementary  books,  and  the 
classroom  reference  books, — all  of  those  books  that  are  kept 
permanently  within  the  classrooms  for  the  systematic  class- 
room work.  On  the  other  hand,  the  board  of  library  commis- 
sioners supplies  the  general  all-round  reading  needed  by  both 
children  and  adults,  and  also  the  periodical  literature  which  is 
supplied  in  unusually  generous  amounts,  both  in  the  central 
library  as  well  as  in  all  of  the  branch  libraries  in  the  school 
buildings  of  the  city. 

A  reading  room  of  generous  size  is  now  supplied  for  the 
branch  libraries  by  the  board  of  education  in  about  one-third  of 
the  regular  school  buildings  of  the  city ;  and  such  a  room  is  being 
provided  in  each  of  the  new  buildings.  The  school  board  sup- 
plies heat,  light,  and  janitor  service,  while  the  library  board  sup- 
plies the  books,  periodicals,  card  catalogues,  and  the  librarians, 
and  conducts  the  weekly  story  hour  during  the  season,  the  course 
of  free  lectures  for  children  and  adults  through  the  year,  and  the 
systematic  instruction  of  the  children  in  the  uses  of  the  library. 
These  branch  library  rooms  are  so  arranged  that  they  can  serve 
as  reading  rooms  for  the  children  during  the  school  day  and  as 
reading  and  library  rooms  for  the  adult  community  during  the 
day,  the  evening,  Saturdays,  and  all  school  vacations,  except 
certain  legal  holidays,  both  afternoon  and  evening.  Separate 
entrances  and  separate  heating  facilities  are  provided  for  the 
community  uses  while  the  schools  are  not  in  session. 

The  classrooms  of  the  regular  size  used  for  branch  library 
purposes  in  the  beginning  having  been  found  to  be  too  small, 
the  boards  are  making  provision  in  all  new  buildings  for  much 
more  commodious  quarters.  This  is  demanded  not  only  by  the 
needs  of  facilities  for  the  reading  activities,  but  also  for  the  in- 
creasing development  of  the  library  lecture  courses  and  the  ever- 
increasing  attendance. 

The  branch  libraries  are  equipped  with  from  1500  to  3500 
volumes,  of  which  about  half  are  for  children  and  the  rest  for 
adults.  Each  is  supplied  with  twenty-five  to  thirty  current 
periodicals  in  the  English  language  and  special  periodical  liter- 


166  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

ature  in  foreign  languages,  adapted  to  the  population  of  the  dis- 
trict. The  use  of  the  books  intended  for  children  and  adults  is 
carefully  studied  so  as  to  keep  only  "live"  books  upon  the 
shelves,  and  to  return  any  unused  books  to  the  central  general 
library. 

In  most  of  the  schools  in  which  branch  libraries  have  not 
been  opened,  there  are  what  are  termed  deposit  libraries  man- 
aged by  the  principal  and  the  teachers,  except  in  the  case  of  five 
of  the  larger  schools  such  as  Madison,  Diamond,  Straight,  Widdi- 
comb,  and  Jefferson,  where  an  assistant  from  the  library  takes 
care  of  this  work  one  day  each  week.  The  size  of  these  deposit 
libraries  is  largely  determined  by  the  demands  of  the  pupils. 
They  consist  of  books  that  are  currently  used,  unused  books 
being  returned.  The  size  of  the  library  is  thus  taken  care  of 
automatically.  Its  expansion  and  diminution  constitute  a  baro- 
meter of  reading  conditions  within  the  building. 

In  addition  to  the  relative  permanent  library  sets  referred  to, 
the  travelling  library  sets  constitute  an  important  feature  of  the 
work.  When  a  teacher  is  treating,  for  example,  a  topic  in  history 
like  the  American  Revolution,  she  sends  in  to  the  central  library 
for  a  travelling  library  box  of  books,  ranging  according  to  the 
topic  from  twenty-five  to  two-hundred  books,  for  collateral  refer- 
ence. This  special  collection  may  be  kept  at  a  building  for  four 
or  six  weeks,  and  the  books  are  issued  by  the  teacher  to  the 
pupils  in  informal  ways — that  is  to  say,  they  are  not  charged  in 
the  usual  manner  upon  the  regular  cards.  Those  who  have  not 
tried  the  plan  in  the  generous  way  in  which  it  is  carried  out  in 
Grand  Rapids  are  inclined  to  venture  the  guess  that  this  plan 
would  result  in  the  loss  of  many  books.  The  books  of  both 
travelling  and  deposit  libraries  are  kept  in  the  buildings  and 
classrooms  on  open  shelves,  the  pupils  having  access  to  them 
at  any  and  all  times  while  the  building  is  open,  whether  the 
teacher  is  present  or  not.  The  library  makes  the  statement, 
however,  that  according  to  the  last  official  report  the  entire 
number  of  books  lost  in  connection  with  all  of  the  library  work 
in  the  schools  for  the  entire  year  was  only  fifty-eight  copies.  A 
number  of  these  copies  will  probably  find  their  way  back  into 
the  library  in  time.  It  appears  that  where  books  are  made  so 
easily  accessible  and  so  abundantly  accessible  as  that  provided 
by  the  library  service  in  the  city,  there  is  no  motive  for  a  child 
trying  to  keep  books  that  have  not  been  charged,  and  thus  trying 
to  build  up  a  little  unneeded  private  library  at  the  expense  of  the 
big  ever-ready  public  library. 

The  library  employs  a  number  of  ways  of  encouraging  the 
children  to  use  the  books  so  variously  supplied.  There  is  the 
Aveekly  story-hour  from  October  to  March  at  the  central  library 


INSTRUCTION  IN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  167 

and  at  each  of  the  branch  libraries.  Monthly  bulletins  are  is- 
sued calling  attention  to  all  new  books  and  to  classified  lists  of 
books  o£  various  kinds.  Eight  or  ten  public  lectures  are  pro- 
vided each  year  for  adults  and  children  at  each  of  the  various 
school  branches.  Printed  slips  are  prepared  announcing  each 
of  these  public  lectures  well  in  advance  throughout  the  district. 
On  each  printed  slip  there  is  given  a  list  of  ten  to  fifteen  books 
and  periodical  articles  relating  to  the  topics  treated  in  the  lec- 
ture, which  can  be  read  preparatory  to  the  lecture,  or  which 
may  be  read  after  the  lecture  has  stimulated  interest  in  the  sub- 
ject. These  lectures  are  attended  in  continually  increasing  meas- 
ure by  both  children  and  adults,  with  a  consequent  continual  in- 
crease in  the  value  of  the  lectures  for  stimulating  reading  on  the 
part  of  juvenile  and  adult  population. 

A  further  method  of  stimulating  reading  is  the  organization 
of  reading  clubs  in  the  schools.  In  one  of  the  buildings  of  the 
city  last  year  an  average  of  nineteen  books  per  child  was  read 
by  the  pupils  of  the  building,  the  children  of  all  grades  including 
the  kindergarten  being  counted  in  taking  this  average.  Many 
children  read  a  book  a  week,  the  habit  formed  during  the  school 
year  tending  to  persist  during  holiday  and  vacation  seasons. 
There  are  some  children  who  read  two  books  a  week  through 
the  year.  Their  library  cards  permit  them  to  take  out  at  one 
time  one  of  fiction  and  one  of  non-fiction.  Two  a  week  is  not 
excessive  for  rapid  readers  when  the  content  is  of  this  balanced 
type.  Since  children  should  be  early  trained  for  rapid  silent 
reading,  this  constitutes  one  of  the  most  effective  possible  de- 
vices for  providing  the  training.  It  is  rapid  voluminous  reading 
of  this  type  that  should  take  care  of  the  major  portion  of  the 
training  in  the  mechanics  of  reading. 

,The  books  for  the  schools  are  chosen  by  specially  trained 
librarians  familiar  with  children's  reading.  Recently  published 
and  therefore  untried  books  are  tried  out  in  the  children's  de- 
partment of  the  general  library  before  they  are  sent  out  to  the 
various  school,  branch,  and  deposit  libraries.  After  being  sent 
out,  reports  are  received  from  principals  and  teachers  as  to  their 
suitability  for  the  purpose.  Principals  and  teachers  are  also 
asked  to  send  into  the  library  any  suggestions  as  to  what  they 
want.  This  method  of  securing  new  books  combines  co-opera- 
tively the  labors  of  both  the  library  and  the  school  people,  and 
draws  upon  the  best  information  and  experience  of  each. 

The  library  also  secures  information  as  to  the  children's 
reading  in  its  "Annual  Conference  on  Children's  Reading."  Both 
teachers  and  parents  are  represented  upon  the  program,  the  dis- 
cussion touching  upon  the  reading  tastes  of  children,  reading 


168  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

needs,  suitable  books,  amounts  of  different  types  of  reading  cov- 
ered by  different  classes  of  children,  relative  values  of  different 
types  of  reading,  and  the  like.  To  make  the  discussions  con- 
crete and  practical,  the  Conference  limits  itself  each  year  to  a 
specific  portion  of  the  reading  field.  For  example,  the  Confer- 
ence this  year  discussed  "Love  Stories  for  Children"  and  last 
year,  "War  Stories  for  Children".  This  type  of  conference 
brings  together  all  of  the  people  interested  in  promoting  and 
improving  children's  reading,  and  prevents  any  group  from  work- 
ing in  isolation  from  the  others. 

After  school  days  are  over  the  most  important-  continuing 
educational  influence, — for  we  are  learning  that  education  must 
be  a  life-long  affair — is  the  reading  habit  in  those  who  have  been 
so  fortunate  as  to  acquire  it.  Education  through  library  reading, 
therefore,  when  full  and  effective  in  ways  evident  in  frequent 
cases  in  this  city,  is  a  type  of  education  that  does  not  therefore 
lapse  when  school  days  are  over. 

We  have  but  one  recommendation  to  make :  Let  the  work 
grow  and  expand  and  continue  along  the  lines  already  provided 
for  by  the  Board  of  Education,  the  Board  of  Library  Commis- 
sioners, and  the  professional  people  within  both  organizations. 

II.     HISTORY 

The  average  number  of  hours  given  to  classwork  in  history 
as  reported  by  principals  in  their  reports  on  distribution  of  class 
time  (not  study  time)  is  shown  in  the  following  table.  Beside  it 
is  placed  the  average  practice  in  fifty  cities  as  reported  by  Pro- 
fessor Holmes  in  the  Fourteenth  Yearbook  of  the  National  So- 
ciety for  the  Study  of  Education,  1915. 

TABLE  XXX 
Hours  per  Year  Given  to  History. 

Fifty  Cities 
27 
31 
35 
57 
67 
71 
91 
117 

Total    231  496 

The  figures  show  that  history  does  not  receive  serious  con- 
sideration except  during  the  last  year  and  a  half  of  the  ele- 
mentary-school course.  The  published  course  of  study  recom- 
mends only  thirty  minutes  per  week  during  the  first  half  of  the 
seventh  grade.  In  most  schools,  however,  even  upon  this  level, 


Grade 
I 

Grand  Rapids 

II 

4 

III 

4 

IV         

7 

v 

11 

VI 

10 

VII 

69 

VIII  ... 

120 

INSTRUCTION  IN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  169 

it  finds  no  place  whatever  upon  the  program.  Naturally,  when 
the  subject  receives  such  scant  consideration  in  the  first  half  of 
the  seventh  grade,  it  receives  no  fuller  consideration  in  the 
grades  preceding  the  seventh. 

Since  about  thirty  per  cent  of  the  growing  generation  in 
Grand  Rapids  drops  out  of  school  before  they  have  taken  the 
work  of  the  last  year  and  a  half,  it  follows  that  this  large  per 
cent  of  the  population  of  the  city  does  not  have  that  fundamental 
training  in  American  citizenship  that  comes  from  a  study  of 
American  history.  Here  we  find  one  of  several  reasons  why 
history  should  be  given  larger  attention  earlier  in  the  elementary- 
school  course. 

From  a  careful  reading  of  the  teachers'  manual  in  history 
and  from  observation  of  the  work  in  the  elementary  schools,  it 
appears  that  the  city  has  not  adequtely  defined  its  purposes  in  the 
teaching  of  history ;  that  history  is  insufficiently  valued  as  a 
training  for  citizenship ;  that  the  methods  of  using  history  as  a 
means  of  training  in  citizenship  have  received  insufficient  con- 
sideration ;  and  that  the  historical  materials  to  be  covered  by  the 
pupils,  as  history  is  used  in  training  for  citizenship,  have  not 
always  been  chosen  looking  to  that  important  end. 

It  is  expected  that  the  course  of  study  shall  be  followed  dur- 
ing the  last  year  and  a  half, — though  reasonable  latitude  is  al- 
lowed to  teachers  in  the  modification  of  the  outlines.  The 
printed  course,  however,  presents  an  outline  for  all  of  the 
grades,  beginning  with  the  first.  Up  to  the  middle  of  the 
seventh  grade,  however,  the  course  is  optional.  They  may  sub- 
stitute a  totally  different  outline  or  omit  the  subject  altogether. 
Since  the  outline  of  work  up  to  the  middle  of  the  seventh  grade 
is  not  to  be  taken  seriously,  naturally  there  was  no  serious  re- 
sponsibility resting  upon  the  course  of  study  committee  when  it 
drew  up  the  outlines.  Without  such  motivating  responsibility, 
good  courses  of  study  are  not  usually  drawn  up.  It- is  the  judg- 
ment of  the  writer  that  such  occurred  in  this  instance. 

The  committee  says  in  its  introduction :  "The  work  in  the 
earlier  grades  cannot  be  called  history,  sociology  would  be  the 
better  word."  It  is  the  judgment  of  the  writer  that  biography, 
personal  incident,  adventure,  and  history,  all  of  a  concrete,  vivid, 
stirring,  active  sort,  should  precede  those  generalizations  con- 
cerning peoples  and  nations  that  we  may  call  elementary-school 
sociology.  The  numerous  sociological  questions  which  are  pre- 
sented in  the  outlines  for  the  early  grades  represent  problems  of 
great  complexity  and  difficulty,  and  should  be  reserved  for  later 
treatment.  They  have  little  place  in  the  primary  grades  of  the 
public  schools.  Only  some  of  the  simpler  matters  should  be  at- 


170  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

tempted  in  the  intermediate  grades,  and  here  it  should  be  noth- 
ing more  than  generalizations  from  concrete  matters  treated  in 
this  history.  Sociological  conditions  in  their  simpler,  rougher 
outlines  can  be  seen  by  the  children  as  the  background  to  the 
actions  of  men  that  take  place  in  the  foreground  of  the  stage. 
For  example,  after  one  has  read  concrete  stories  of  early  explor- 
ations in  America,  including  the  exploration  of  the  Mississippi 
and  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  region ;  after  one  has  read  stirring 
stories  of  Indian  life  and  adventure;  after  having  read  the  inci- 
dents of  Indian  wars  and  the  Indian  fringe  of  other  wars,  etc.,  it 
is  then  easily  possible  for  children  to  generalize  as  to  the  social 
conditions  and  relationships  of  the  primitive  American  tribes. 
Children  can  then  discuss  housing,  government,  weapons,  meth- 
ods of  warfare,  domestic  animals,  the  protective  instincts,  in- 
fluences bringing  people  together  and  uniting  them  into  tribes, 
primitive  beginnings  of  agricultural  implements  and  methods, 
and  the  various  other  sociological  matters  relative  to  the  Indians. 
But  these  sociological  generalizations  should  come  late.  They 
do  not  belong  in  second  and  third  grades  as  provided  in  the  out- 
lines. 

The  second-grade  outline  indicates  some  recognition  of  this 
principle,  though  apparently  inadequate  recognition.  After 
recommending  a  rather  abstract  sociological  treatment  of  "shep- 
herd life,"  in  one  of  the  later  sections  they  recommend  the  in- 
troduction of  the  stories  of  Abraham,  Joseph,  David,  and  other 
shepherds  that  may  suggest  themselves.  Except  for  the  fact 
that  Joseph  was  not  a  shepherd  and  David  gave  but  little  time 
to  it,  the  recommendation  refers  to  the  sort  of  thing  to  which 
practically  all  of  the  history  work  of  the  second  grade  should  be 
devoted, — that  is  to  say,  to  simple  interesting  biographical 
stories.  Out  of  a  series  of  concrete  stories  of  shepherds,  children 
can,  when  the  right  time  comes,  generalize  as  to  the  various  as- 
pects and  relationships  of  shepherd  life.  To  fill  the  children's 
minds  full  of  concrete  imagery  and  stories  is  perhaps  the  method 
of  laying  the  proper  foundation  for  the  later  more  generalized 
stages  of  understanding. 

The  course  of  study  attempts  to  organize  various  types  o-f 
study,  and  to  give  different  ones  at  different  points  in  the  course. 
The  second-grade  work  is  to  be  given  to  shepherd  life ;  the  third- 
grade,  to  agricultural  life ;  the  first  half  of  the  fourth-grade,  to 
the  history  of  Grand  Rapids ;  the  second  half,  to  a  brief  review 
of  general  history  given  biographically,  and  treating  of  Rome, 
Greece,  Persia,  the  age  of  chivalry,  early  England,  and  early 
Norway.  The  first  half  of  the  fifth  grade  is  devoted  to  the  bio- 
graphies of  prominent  Americans ;  the  second  half,  to  biographi- 
cal studies  of  European,  African,  and  South  American  history 


INSTRUCTION  IN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  171 

during1  the  modern  period.  The  first  half  of  the  sixth  grade  is 
given  to  discoverers  and  explorers  of  North  America,  and  to  in- 
ventors ;  the  second  half,  to  a  general  survey  of  the  heroes  of  the 
ancient  world,  Greece,  Rome,  China,  Persia. 

This  series  of  general  topics  seems  to  represent  the  zig-zag 
results  of  several  influences  that  have  been  at  work.  The  shep- 
herd life  and  agricultural  life  of  second  and  third  grades  appear 
to  have  grown  out  of  an  old  recapitulatory  theory  of  education. 
The  history  of  Grand  Rapids  in  the  fourth  grade  appears  to 
result  from  the  influence  of  certain  local  patriotic  and  historical 
societies.  A  part  of  the  work  of  the  second  half  of  the  fourth 
grade  and  of  that  of  fifth  and  sixth  grades  is  for  the  conscious 
purpose  of  preparation  for  the  later  study  of  American  history. 
Another  portion  of  it  seems  to  be  due  to  a  feeling  on  the  part  of 
the  committee  that  for  general  cultural  purposes  one  should  have 
a  wide  backward  view  over  general  world  history. 

It  is  the  judgment  of  the  writer  that  history  rightly  taught 
is  a  matter  of  great  practical  value.  But  actually  to  be  of  large 
value,  however,  the  materials  must  be  chosen  with  an  eye  single 
to  the  practical  values  that  are  to  accrue  from  historical  reading 
and  experience.  The  purposes  must  be  held  definitely  in  mind. 
Except  as  the  history  curriculum  looks  to  results  that  are  needed 
in  the  community  life  of  today,  there  should  not  be  any  history 
curriculum.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  we  are  in  our  country 
confronted  with  a  host  of  social,  economic,  industrial,  religious, 
political,  and  other  problems  of  the  greatest  complexity.  Their 
solution  in  our  democracy  depends  upon  an  adequate  under- 
standing of  them  on  the  part  of  the  entire  citizenry.  The  histori- 
cal approach  to  each  of  these  various  problems  is  the  most  illu- 
minating approach.  It  shows  the  problems  in  their  simple  early 
forms.  It  shows  the  nature  of  the  influences  that  have  been  at 
work  by  way  of  bringing  about  the  present  complicated  relation- 
ships. History,  therefore,  is  one  of  the  best  possible  modes  of 
analysis  of  the  factors  that  enter  into  present-day  problems.  It 
gives  width  of  vision  in  the  treatment  of  these  problems ;  it 
teaches  tolerance  and  patience  in  the  working  out  of  the  prob- 
lems. 

Materials  should  therefore  be  chosen  chiefly  for  the  purpose 
of  revealing  the  nature  of  present-day  social  conditions  and  prob- 
lems. Our  problems  are  world-wide  in  their  ramifications  and 
some  of  them  reach  back  to  a  point  even  before  the  dawn  of 
written  history.  Many  of  them  reach  back  into  the  ancient 
period.  For  illuminating  our  present-day  problems,  therefore, 
there  is  reason  for  teaching  world-history  beginning  with  an- 
cient times.  The  early  work  in  primary  and  in  intermediate 


172  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

grades  will  deal  mainly  with  biography,  adventure,  migrations, 
wars,  myths,  legends,  etc.  It  will  not  narrow  itself  to  shepherd 
life  in  the  second  grade,  and  agricultural  life  in  the  third  grade, 
and  Grand  Rapids  life  in  the  fourth  grade ;  but  in  these  early 
grades  the  whole  world  will  be  its  field.  The  later  intermediate 
grades  will  read  more  connected  stories  of  nations,  ancient  and 
modern,  treated  mainly  from  the  biographical  point  of  view  and 
dealing  with  the  larger  simpler  activities  of  the  nations, — those 
simple  fundamental  matters  which  children  of  the  intermediate 
grades  can  understand,  such  as  wars,  migrations,  struggles  of 
major  groups  within  the  nation,  changes  in  major  outlines  of 
government,  etc.  Everything  at  this  level  will  necessarily  be 
largely  personal  and  the  interests  will  grow  out  largely  of  the 
basic  instincts  of  conflict  and  danger.  By  the  end  of  the  sixth 
grade,  children  through  such  reading  should  have  a  considerable 
familiarity  with  the  outlines  of  the  chronological,  historical 
movements  in  the  major  historical  nations,  ancient  and  modern, 
the  basic  chronological  outline  of  American  history  among  the 
rest. 

In  making  this  recommendation  in  other  places  the  writer 
has  found  the  objection  to  arise  that  the  work  above  recom- 
mended simply  cannot  be  done.  It  is  usually  said  that  a  familiar- 
ity wth  the  stories  of  so  many  nations  is  more  properly  a  problem 
for  the  level  of  the  college  rather  than  for  that  of  the  intermediate 
grades  of  the  elementary  school.  Let  one,  however,  look  over  the 
supplementary  readings  of  a  biographical,  legendary,  and  his- 
torical character  designed  for  the  use  of,  and  actually  used  in 
third,  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  grades  in  American  cities  at  the 
present  time,  and  let  him  note  the  quantity  of  such  reading  that 
is  actually  covered  by  the  children  in  cities  where  they  are 
generously  supplied  with  such  reading  materials, — let  one  go 
far  enough  into  this  problem  that  he  may  forget  his  traditional 
preconceptions, — and  he  will  discover  that  the  program  sug- 
gested is  a  practicable  one.  Naturally  it  is  to  be  done  in  ways 
and  with  the  use  of  materials  that  harmonize  with  the  nature  of 
childhood  of  those  ages  to  be  found  within  the  intermediate 
grades.  Children  of  this  age  are  an  active,  restless,  human 
species.  When  they  are  given  the  opportunity  through  appro- 
priate appealing  reading  to  participate  imaginatively  in  the  his- 
torical experiences  of  men  and  of  people,  they  are  just  as  active 
and  just  as  restless  and  will  enter  into  the  imaginative  experience 
with  the  same  zeal.  Things  of  course  must  be  rapid.  The 
panorama  must  be  always  changing.  The  pupil  must  not  have  to 
stop  too  much  to  learn  things,  but  must  simply  live  in  the  cur- 
rent of  the  action.  In  proportion  as  this  experience  is  vivid  and 
vital,  it  will  shape  his  mentality  and  he  will  remember  the  out- 


INSTRUCTION  IN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  173 

lines  of  it.  He  will  not  often  stop  to  learn  things  as  he  reads, 
and  yet  the  learning  that  is  the  outcome  of  this  type  of  experi- 
ence will  be  the  best  and  surest  type  of  learning.  The  learning 
that  comes  from  experience  abides ;  while  the  learning  that 
comes  from  memorizing,  lacking  vitality,  fades  and  disappears. 

In  the  introduction  to  the  history  course  of  study  the  com- 
mittee has  supplied  three  pages  of  bibliography  of  historical 
readings.  Very  many  of  the  books  are  of  the  types  appropriate 
for  the  work  of  the  intermediate  grades.  With  the  excellent 
beginning  thus  made  it  ought  to  be  possible  for  the  city  to  as- 
semble a  still  more  complete  list  of  books  appropriate  for  each 
of  these  grades,  and  from  these  grade  lists  select  historical 
readings  of  the  character  recommended.  This  is  not  reading  to 
be  done  in  addition  to  that  recommended  in  our  discussion  of 
reading.  This  should  be  a  portion  of  the  general  reading  pro- 
gram. It  is  a  matter  of  no  consequence  whether  the  reading  is 
placed  in  the  reading  class  or  the  history  class. 

Many  good  reason's  can  be  given  for  such  a  familiarity  with 
the  history  of  Grand  Rapids  as  intended  by  the  outline  of  work 
set  down  for  the  first  half  of  the  fourth  grade.  It  should,  how- 
ever, at  this  level,  be  biographical,  anecdotal,  personal,  and  con- 
crete, so  far  as  possible,  with  the  general  outlines  of  the  eco- 
nomic and  other  growth  of  the  city  chiefly  in  the  background. 
It  should  be  a  thing  to  be  read  and  appreciated ;  but  not  a  thing 
to  be  learned,  recited  upon,  and  examined  upon.  At  a  later 
period  when  one  is  considering  the  civic  problems  of  the  city,  as 
one  discusses  the  fire  department  of  the  present,  it  will  be  proper- 
ly appreciated  and  understood  if  the  history  of  the  devleopment 
of  the  present  fire  department  from  the  beginning  is  introduced 
rather  fully.  In  the  same  way  one  will  best  introduce  the  detailed 
history  of  the  school  system,  the  board  of  health,  the  water  sup- 
ply system,  the  sewer  system,  the  police  department,  the  build- 
ing situation,  the  industries  of  the  city,  etc.  One  can  then  best 
introduce  the  city's  history  in  connection  with  each  of  these 
various  matters.  These  studies  are  of  a  type  for  grades  subse- 
quent to  the  intermediate. 

The  history  outline  provides  that  thirty  minutes  per  week 
during  the  first  half  of  the  seventh  grade  should  be  devoted  to  a 
discussion  of  city  and  county  civic  problems.  While  these  mat- 
ters should  be  taught,  it  must  be  first  noticed  that  this  is  not 
history,  and  that  no  history  is  recommended  for  the  first  half  of 
the  seventh  grade. 

Certain  civic  problems  should  be  taken  up  for  study  at  this 
time,  but  it  would  be  better  to  take  up  a  few  problems  on  the 
level  of  the  comprehension  of  the  students  rather  than  to  try  to 


174  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

follow  so  complete  and  elaborate  an  outline,  all  of  the  work 
being1  done  relatively  superficially, — in  the  rare  instances  in 
which  it  is  attempted.  To  handle  a  few  topics  seriously  and 
thoroughly  would  be  much  better  than  scattering  over  the  whole 
of  so  long  a  list  at  this  period.  Civic  topics  not  treated  during 
the  first  half  of  the  seventh  grade  should  be  treated  during  the 
second  half  of  this  grade,  and  during  the  eighth  grade.  The  work 
is  important  enough  to  justify  its  being  distributed  over  a  long 
period  of  time.  It  is  also  sufficiently  important  to  warrant  its 
being  looked  upon  as  a  subject  in  itself,  and  therefore  something 
more  than  a  subject  that  is  taken  care  of  provided  there  is  time 
enough  left  after  the  history  work  is  done. 

History  in  the  Grammar  Grades 

A  spiral  method  is  employed  in  the  teaching  of  history  dur- 
ing the  last  year  and  a  half  of  the  elementary  course.  Both  the 
colonial  period  and  the  national  period  are  covered  twice.  In  the 
first  of  the  three  semesters  given  to  this  subject,  the  colonial 
period  is  covered  down  to  the  end  of  the  Revolutionary  War. 
In  the  next  semester,  the  class  goes  back  to  European  beginnings 
of  American  history  and  brings  the  whole  subject  down  to  the 
present,  but  looking  primarily  to  migrations  and  expansions  of 
the  population.  Thus  it  covers  exploration  and  settlement,  not 
only  of  the  colonial  region  but  also  of  the  Mississippi  valley,  the 
western  great  plains,  the  mountain  region,  the  Pacific  Coast 
region,  and  our  insular  possessions.  Naturally  it  deals  with  the 
various  conflicts  and  difficulties  met  with  in  this  growth  and 
expansion  of  nationality.  In  the  third  and  last  semester  the 
national  period,  beginning  with  Washington's  administration,  is 
covered.  The  outline  omits  the  period  from  1783-1789  during 
which  the  country  was  governed  under  the  Articles  of  Confeder- 
ation. 

The  first  and  third  semesters  of  this  course  represent  in  the 
main  the  usual  traditional  plan  of  organization.  The  half  year 
devoted  to  the  topics  of  westward  migration  and  national  ex- 
pansion is  run  in  between  the  two  halves  of  a  usual  course. 

The  plan  is  unusual.  Much  can  be  s£id  in  favor  of  it. 
More  could  be  said  in  favor  of  it  if  textbooks  suitable  for  this 
plan  of  course  were  available.  The  first  half  of  the  second 
semester's  work  duplicates  in  considerable  degree  the  work  of 
the  first  semester;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  third  semester's 
work  duplicates  in  considerable  degree  the  second  portion  of  the 
middle  semester.  But  such  repetition  is  an  essential  element  of 
any  spiral  plan  of  organization.  It  is  intentional  and  serves  as 
review.  Two  impressions  a  half-year  apart  are  better  than  one. 


INSTRUCTION  IN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  175 

As  the  course  is  drawn  up,  the  second  treatment,  however,  is 
from  a  different  angle.  There  is  a  somewhat  different  immedi- 
ate purpose  in  view ;  and  in  large  part  different  materials  are 
used. 

Were  proper  textbook  materials  available  for  the  pupils 
the  plan  as  drawn  up  could  be  commended  as  being  distinctly 
superior  to  the  usual  traditional  plan  of  treatment.  The  chief 
textbook  difficulty  is  in  connection  with  the  middle  semester. 
For  this  treatment  advised  is  presented  in  part  in  a  book  that 
is  used  in  the  graduate  school  of  our  university;  and  in  part  it 
is  to  be  found  by  selecting  passages  here  and  there  through  the 
five  regular  texts  of  the  open  list.  It  is  generally  believed,  how- 
ever, that  at  this  stage  of  maturity  the  chronological  treatment 
of  history  should  be  presented  in  a  connected  account,  which  can 
be  read  through  in  a  straightforward  manner  from  the  beginning 
to  the  end.  Even  after  the  students  have  a  good  understanding 
of  the  general  chronological  sequence  of  affairs  and  are  taking 
up  the  study  of  specific  topics,  it  is  felt  that  the  treatment  of  a 
topic  should  be  organic,  sequential,  connected,  so  that  the  child- 
ren can  read  the  whole  of  it  from  beginning  to  end  as  one  or- 
ganic story.  It  is  not  good  in  the  basic  teaching  of  history  at  this 
period  for  pupils  to  be  compelled  to  search  through  a  number  of 
books  by  way  of  assembling  information  that  bears  upon  specific 
topics  that  are  furnished  in  a  topical  outline.  Collateral  work 
supplementary  to  the  connected  treatment  of  a  basic  text  is 
valuable  and  desirable.  It  is  generally  thought  to  be  better, 
however,  to  use  a  text  as  the  basis  of  organization  of  all  such 
collateral  material  rather  than  the  bare  skeleton  outline.  For 
children  of  this  age  such  a  skeleton  is  generally  considered  to  be 
too  frail  for  secure  organization. 

In  the  first  and  third  semesters  of  the  work  certain  teachers 
have  preferred  the  use  of  a  single  textbook  as  the  basis  of  the 
work,  and  to  use  library  or  desk  copies  of  the  other  four  books  on 
the  open  list,  and  still  others  in  addition  for  supplementary  col- 
lateral reading.  In  other  cases  teachers  have. preferred  the  five 
book  plan,  the  different  pupils  being  encouraged  to  purchase 
different  textbooks  so  that  each  of  the  five  adopted  texts  will 
be  found  in  the  hands  of  pupils  in  the  class.  The  basis  of  or- 
ganization is  the  outline  given  out  by  the  teacher.  All  the  in- 
formation then  in  all  of  the  books  is  used  by  the  pupils  at  the 
recitation  time.  The  result  of  this  latter  plan,  however,  is  that 
the  basis  of  organization  must  _be  the  outline,  and  students  can- 
not read  the  text  in  its  sequential  treatment  as  laid  down  in  the 
book.  Pupils  are  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  the  year 
skipping  about,  finding  information  on  the  various  topics.  The 


176  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

former  plan  is  probably  the  more  effective  plan  of  organizing 
the  information  and  study,  and  at  the  same  time  secures  the 
pooling  of  the  information  from  the  same  and  even  additional 
books.  It  appears  to  be  the  better  method. 

While  commending  the  general  organization  of  the  gram- 
mar grade  work  as  it  stands,  it  is  the  belief  of  the  writer,  based 
upon  the  practice  in  progressive  school  systems,  that  the  present 
form  of  organization  of  the  work  is  but  temporary,  and  that  in 
the  next  few  years  great  improvements  can  and  will  be  made. 
This  will  be  accomplished  in  large  part  by  developing  the  history 
work  of  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth,  and  first  half  of  seventh 
grades.  An  appreciation  of  the  general  chronological  develop- 
ment of  the  country  in  its  simpler  basic  aspects  should  be  rather 
fully  developed  by  the  end  of  the  sixth  grade.  Much  that  is  now 
done  subsequent  to  the  middle  of  the  seventh  grade  should  be 
accomplished  before  this  point  is  reached  so  that  the  seventh 
and  eighth  grades  could  be  given  to  the  connected  treatment  of 
a  considerable  variety  of  topics,  the  understanding  of  which  is 
demanded  by  our  present  problems  of  citizenship.  One  of  the 
first  of  these  topics  that  might  be  taken  up  for  special  treatment 
might  well  be  that  of  "Westward  Expansion"  which  the  city  has 
already,  so  far  as  the  outline  is  concerned,  very  fully  worked 
out.  A  second  simple  topic  might  be  the  growth  and  develop- 
ment of  transportation  and  communication  systems.  The  con- 
nected treatment  of  the  history  of  railroads,  waterway  transpor- 
tation, roads,  postal  service,  telegraph  and  telephone,  etc.,  can  be 
made  simple,  concrete,  interesting  and  intelligible.  With  a  back- 
ground of  understanding  laid  in  the  earlier  grades  of  the  general 
chronological  development,  this  topic  or  this  series  of  topics 
may  very  well  be  treated  in  connected  form  without  reference  to 
any  other  aspects  of  the  national  history  except  as  they  are  re- 
lated to  the  topics  that  are  being  treated.  Other  topics  that 
might  then  be  similarly  treated  are  such  as  the  following:  the 
industrial  development  of  the  United  States,  the  growth  of 
manufacturing,  the  growth  of  commerce,  the  development  of 
mining  industries,  the  development  of  foreign  commerce,  con- 
servation of  our  natural  resources,  pensions,  control  of  the  hours 
of  labor,  immigration,  taxation,  tariff  and  free  trade,  the  control 
of  public  utilities,  the  control  of  disease,  the  water  supply  of 
cities,  city  beautification,  etc.,  etc.  Some  of  these  topics  may 
seem  sufficiently  fantastic  because  of  our  having  become  more 
or  less  accustomed  to  think  of  a  conventional  series  of  topics  as 
belonging  to  the  treatment  of  our  American  history.  As  a  mat- 
ter of  fact  the  history  cannot  be  justified  except  as  it  affords  il- 
lumination of  our  present-day  problems  of  various  kinds,  and 
particularly  those  of  citizenship.  The  treatment  of  a  topic  is 


INSTRUCTION  IN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  177 

lacking  in  substantiality  if  the  historical  background  of  it  is  not 
given  as  a  portion  of  the  treatment.  Since  so  large  a  proportion 
of  our  pupils  do  not  go  to  high  school,  if  our  citizenship  is  to  be 
prepared,  some  of  the  treatment  at  least  must  be  given  during  the 
grammar-school  grades. 

The  program  suggested  can  be  worked  out  and  adopted 
only  gradually,  because  it  is  not  possible  yet  to  find  satisfactory 
textbooks  or  other  treatment  of  many  of  these  various  civic 
problems.  The  demands  on  the  part  of  city  systems  for  such 
reading  material  is  so  recent  that  the  supply  is  not  yet  forth- 
coming in  any  adequate  degree.  For  the  present  any  program 
must  be  drawn  up  with  a  consideration  at  the  same  time  of  the 
reading  materials  that  are  available,  or  which  can  be  made  avail- 
able. In  large  degree  teachers  are  textbook-trained.  They  know 
the  subject  in  its  traditional  content  and  form  of  organization, 
but  they  are  relatively  uninformed  as  to  the  historical  back- 
ground of  our  various  civic  problems.  They  cannot  be  expected 
to  perform  the  large  labor  of  gathering  together  information  on 
these  topics  and  of  presenting  matters  in  part  orally  and  in  part 
through  outlines  of  readings  from  various  sources  to  be  covered 
by  the  pupils.  A  good  body  of  reading  on  any  topic  should  be 
made  available  for  both  teachers  and  pupils  by  the  overhead 
management  before  the  work  is  attempted. 

The  method  employed  in  the  history  work  of  the  grammar 
grades,  so  far  as  observed  in  the  dozen  visits  made  to  such 
classes,  was  mainly  of  the  usual  question  and  answer  type.  The 
task  of  the  pupils  was  to  memorize  the  facts  and  then  to  give 
them  out  in  the  recitation  in  answers  to  questions.  This  fact- 
learning  and  recitation  method  is  coming  to  be  looked  upon  as 
less  effective  for  the  serious  purposes  of  teaching  history  than  the 
experiential  method  of  re-living  the  reconstructed  life  of  the 
past  through  the  imaginative  experience  of  reading  in  which  the 
treatment  is  full,  concrete,  vivid,  and  interesting.  At  the  present 
time  there  is  too  much  fact-learning  and  not  enough  historical 
experience.  This  is  not  to  depreciate  the  worth  of  facts.  It  is  to 
indicate  a  method  of  arriving  at  a  memory  of  facts  that  is  more 
effective  than  the  direct  method  of  memorization,  and  which 
secures  a  variety  of  other  good  results  at  the  same  time.  The 
textbook  fact-learning  method  is  an  ineffective  method,  and  a 
wasteful  method  because  relatively  ineffective. 

The  type  of  work  here  recommended  is  not  possible  in  a  city 
that  adheres  to  the  individual  purchase  plan  for  textbooks.  Only 
as  the  textbooks  are  publicly  purchased  and  held  by  the  school 
will  it  be  possible  to  carry  through  any  such  plan  of  work.  This 
is  of  course  already  realized  by  the  community  as  indicated  by 


178  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

a  fairly  generous  supply  of  that  type  of  text  material  which  has 
been  misnamed  supplementary  reading.  It  is  this  type  of  con- 
crete reading  that  must  really  constitute  the  fundamental  text 
material.  The  historical  textbook  series  must  include  a  large 
number  of  books,  each  read  fairly  rapidly  for  the  sake  of  histori- 
cal experience ;  not  read  slowly  for  the  sake  of  memorization  of 
the  facts.  For  the  sake  of  economy,  therefore,  co-operative  pub- 
lic purchase  and  ownership  is  desirable  and  necessary. 

The  course  of  study  for  the  grammar  grades  presents  a 
long  series  of  topics,  and  gives  references  in  simply  a  general 
way.  A  great  deal  of  unnecessary  labor  is  thus  thrown  upon  the 
teachers  of  the  8-1  grade  by_way  of  searching  through  the  various 
books  for  the  purpose  of  finding  the  materials  on  the  different 
topics.  It  would  be  very  economical  in  teacher's  labor,  which 
is  greatly  needed  for  other  things,  if  the  published  course  of 
study  would  give  series  of  reading  references  in  connection  with 
the  various  topics  of  the  outline.  This  could  provide  for  all 
teachers  as  full  a  supply  of  reading  references  as  is  used  by  the 
best.  It  would  be  a  great  improvement  to  bring  the  work  of  all 
up  to  the  level  of  the  best.  Such  series  of  readings  would  not 
prevent  any  teacher's  going  farther  afield  in  the  search  of  still 
more  appropriate  materials  if  the  teacher  so  wished.  It  need  not 
prevent  any  desired  degree  of  flexibility  in  the  administration  of 
the  course.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  will  promote  flexibility  and 
rational  choice.  By  giving  so  large  a  nucleus  of  material  ready 
at  hand,  teachers  are  given  time  to  look  further  afield. 

III.     CIVICS 

The  course  of  study  makes  no  adequate  provision  for  the 
teaching  of  the  civic  problems  met  with  by  the  people  of  Grand 
Rapids.  It  provides  that  thirty  minutes  a  week  in  the  first  half 
of  the  seventh  grade  shall  be  given  to  civic  problems.  But  the 
course  suggested  is  optional ;  education  materials  are  not  pro- 
vided ;  where  they  may  be  secured  or  what  they  may  be  is  not 
indicated  in  any  way.  The  course  seems  to  be  theoretically 
rounded  out  instead  of  being  a  series  of  topics  adapted  to  the 
interests  and  mental  maturity  of  the  children ;  or  of  relating  to 
the  civic  needs  of  the  city. 

The  course  also  suggests  that  the  civil  government  of  the 
United  States  should  be  taught  during  the  last  semester  of  the 
eighth  grade.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  course  is  also  providing 
that  the  entire  national  period  shall  be  covered  during  that 
same  time.  The  historical  task  is  of  such  magnitude  that  it 
appears  not  possible  to  do  both  in  the  time  at  the  disposal  of 
the  history.  It  is  found,  however,  that  in  one  of  the  junior  high. 


INSTRUCTION  IN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  179 

Schools  about  half  of  the  time  is  found  for  the  study  of  civil 
government.  In  other  eighth  grades  this  time  is  not  found,  and 
the  history  consumes  all  or  practically  all  of  .the  time. 

The  chief  criticism  of  the  eighth-grade  recommendations 
concerning  civics  is  that  the  teaching  suggested  does  not  par- 
ticularly relate  itself  to  our  present-day  civic  problems.  The 
thing  recommended  is  a  study  of  the  structure  of  the  govern- 
mental mechanism,  mostly  in  the  abstract. 

The  structure  of  government,  however,  is  not  the  thing  that 
gives  us  most  trouble.  The  thing  needed  by  citizens  generally 
as  civic  training  is  that  enlightened  public  opinion  on  the  many 
questions  of  public  policy  necessary  for  the  efficient  operation 
and  supervision  of  the  workings  of  the  general  mechanism  of 
government.  An  understanding  of  problems  of  the  type  enumer- 
ated in  the  discussion  of  grammar-grade  history  is  the  thing 
needed  in  our  present-day  democracy. 

Civics  should  not  be  a  mere  addendum  to  history.  Quite 
the  reverse,  the  civic  problems  should  be  central  and  the  history 
subordinate,  in  the  sense  that  historical  materials  are  chosen  for 
the  illumination  of  the  social  civic  problems.  The  two  should 
possibly  be  developed  together ;  but  after  the  early  chronological 
background  has  been  taught,  in  all  probability  the  organization 
of  the  two  subjects  should  be  brought  about  by  first  selecting  the 
sociological  civic  problems  that  require  historical  illumination, 
and  then  developing  the  treatment  with  the  history  consciously 
used  as  only  one  of  several  means  of  illuminating  the  situation. 
Along  with  the  history  will  be  geographic,  economic,  and  scien- 
tific considerations,  as  the  social  problem  is  looked  at  from  many 
angles.  The  city  in  this  age  of  complicated  problems  is  expend- 
ing but  little  time,  effort,  thought,  or  money  upon  the  training 
for  a  conscious  understanding  of  these  many  present-day  prob- 
lems. 

The  city  is  expending  $32,000  annually  for  the  teaching  of 
drawing  in  the  elementary  schools,  for  which  no  such  good  case 
can  be  made  out.  The  city  is  expending  $30,000  each  year  for 
the  teaching  of  music  in  the  elementary  schools,  for  which 
equally  no  such  serious  arguments  can  be  brought.  The  city  is 
expending  more  than  $40,000  annually  for  the  teaching  of  gram- 
mar in  the  elementary  schools ;  and  yet  there  is  probably  no  man 
who  will  urge  that  the  problems  of  correct  speaking  on  the  part 
of  the  masses  of  the  population  is  of  equal  importance  with  a 
wise  performance  of  their  civic  duties.  We  would  not  under- 
value any  of  the  studies  mentioned.  They  are  valuable.  We 
merely  wish  to  call  attention  to  the  probability  that  a  thing  that 
is  still  more  valuable  is  being  relatively  neglected. 


180  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

The  best  thing  being  done  at  the  present  time  in  this  field  is 
the  study  of  "current  events".  The  study  of  such  current  events 
can  be  given  vitality  and  significance,  however,  only  as  the 
readings  are  use'd  for  the  illumination  of  social  problems  that 
have  already  been  studied  more  or  less  systematically.  The 
civic  studies  should  therefore  provide  the  apperceptive  basis  for 
an  understanding  of  the  significance  of  current  events. 

IV.    GEOGRAPHY 

Geography  is  accorded  a  place  upon  the  program  from  the 
third  grade  to  the  middle  of  the  seventh  grade.  In  these  grades 
the  subject  receives  about  the  usual  amount  of  time.  The  course 
of  study  manual  outlines  geographical  studies  for  the  last  half 
of  the  seventh  grade  and  for  both  terms  of  the  eighth  grade. 
These  studies  are  given  no  separate  place  upon  the  program, 
however.  It  is  expected  that  they  be  taught  in  connection  with 
the  American  history.  The  studies  relate  solely  to  America,  al- 
most wholly  to  the  United  States,  and  are  the  things  that  should 
properly  be  covered  in  developing  an  adequate  understanding  of 
United  States  history. 

Most  of  the  work  consists  of  learning  the  textbooks  in  the 
usual  manner,  and  giving  back  the  facts  to  the  teacher  in  the 
recitation.  As  a  rule,  the  matters  to  be  covered  in  a  given  lesson 
are  outlined  in  detail  by  the  teacher.  The  pupils  then  learn  the 
facts  relative  to  each  of  the  topics  and  in  the  recitations  give 
back  the  facts  which  they  have  memorized  for  the  purpose. 

The  buildings  are  supplied  with  standard  sets  of  geograph- 
ical readers  adapted  for  the  work  of  the  later  portions  of  the 
course.  The  readers  supplied,  however,  are  too  difficult  for  the 
earlier  portion  of  the  work.  Occasional  sets  of  geographical 
readings  of  a  varied  character  are  found  in  third,  fourth,  and 
fifth-grade  rooms.  In  general,  however,  there  is  a  great  dearth 
of  proper  geographical  reading  material  for  these  grades.  For 
the  later  portion  of  the  course  the  geography  manual  makes  re- 
ference to  certain  geographical  readings  of  a  type  rather  more 
modern  than  that  of  the  geographical  readers  generally  supplied. 
It  seems,  however,  that  these  better  readings  have  not  yet  been 
generally  supplied  to  the  schools  of  the  city  in  sets  for  class  use. 

We  recommend  that  serious  attention  be  given  to  the  mat- 
ter of  supplying  proper  quality  and  quantity  of  geographical 
reading  materials.  Pure  fact-memorization  from  the  textbooks 
is  ineffective  because  of  the  transiency  and  superficiality  of  re- 
sults, and  the  work  is  relatively  wasteful  because  relatively  in- 
effective. Effective  geographical  work  must  be  experiential.  In 
the  reading  of  travels,  of  the  lives  of  peoples  in  various  lands,  of 


INSTRUCTION  IN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  181 

connected  stories  of  the  industrial  life  in  our  own  and  in  other 
lands  in  connection  with  a  variety  of  industries,  etc.,  always 
noting  the  maps  at  the  same  time,  and  noting  geographical  re- 
lationships, the  facts  of  geography  can  be  given  significance  and 
substantiality.  The  experiential  route,  while  appearing  to  be 
longer  and  more  complicated  than  the  simple  direct  memory 
method,  is,  however,  the  one  that  is  most  economical  in  the  end. 
In  this  connection  we  wish  to  commend  most  highly  the  yet  un- 
developed plan  of  teaching  geographical  relationships  during  the 
last  year  and  a  half  of  the  elementary  school, — namely  in  con- 
nection with  the  history.  As  the  history  course  is  expanded  in 
the  intermediate  grades,  the  proper  attention  should  be  given  to 
the  geographical  settings  in  the  various  countries  touched  upon 
in  the  historical  readings.  As  the  children  read  the  stories  of 
Greece,  Rome,  or  colonial  and  pioneer  life,  there  should  always 
be  a  generous  supply  of  maps  and  pictures  for  reference,  by  way 
of  keeping  clear  the  geographical  background  of  the  action. 

Very  little  evidence  was  observed  of  the  use  of  the  problem- 
method  of  teaching  geography.  This  is  a  method  of  vitalizing 
the  work,  the  use  of  which  we  wish  strongly  to  recommend.  The 
problem  work  can  be  most  effective  if  based  upon  wide  geo- 
graphical reading  experience  rather  than  upon  the  textbooks 
alone.  It  can,  however,  be  used  for  giving  a  large  degree  of 
vitality  to  pure  textbook  study. 

The  work  of  the  third  grade  begins  the  subject  with  an  at- 
tempt to  develop  the  basic  concepts  necessary  for  an  under- 
standing of  industrial  and  commercial  geography.  In  the  words 
of  the  manual :  "The  industrial  and  commercial  idea  is  the  first 
central  idea  to  be  emphasized."  Later  then  in  the  third  grade, 
attention  is  given  through  both  reading  and  observation  to  phy- 
siographic matters  by  way  of  developing  the  basic  concepts  for 
this  side  of  the  work.  The  elementary  geography  text  is  in  the 
hands  of  the  pupils.  It  is  the  judgment  of  the  writer  that  com- 
mercial, industrial,  and  physiographic  matters  are  not  appropriate 
for  the  degree  of  immaturity  of  the  pupils  of  .the  third  grade. 
These  are  matters  that  should  come  considerably  later.  Inter- 
esting human  stories  that  have  a  geographic  setting  and  back- 
ground with  which  we  desire  the  pupils  to  become  familiar  are 
more  appropriate  to  the  type  of  interest  and  degree  of  mental 
maturity  of  third-grade  students.  The  schools  that  are  using 
"Eskimo  Stories",  "Little  Folks  of  Many  Lands",  etc.,  are  dis- 
covering the  type  of  material  that  ought  to  be  used  chiefly  in 
the  earlier  portion  of  the  work.  The  text  is  good  for  its  maps 
and  pictures.  For  these  earlier  grades  it  is  usually,  however,  too 


182  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

abstract  and  too  didactic  to  be  used  as  the  basis  of  the  work. 
It  is  good  reference  material. 

The  first  half  of  the  fourth  grade  deals  with  the  geography 
of  Grand  Rapids.  It  deals  with  matters  that  naturally  should 
be  well  understood  by  the  people  of  the  city.  Many  of  the  mat- 
ters of  the  outline,  however,  should  preferably  be  taught  in  the 
history  class  that  deals  with  the  development  of  the  city  and  the 
region.  Many  of  the  other  matters  are  of  an  industrial,  com- 
mercial and  economic  character  that  are  intelligible  only  as 
Grand  Rapids  is  seen  in  relation  to  the  general  situation  through- 
out the  United  States.  The  economic  aspects,  moreover,  are 
scarcely  suited  to  the  mental  immaturity  of  the  children.  It  is 
because  the  subject  is  important  for  both  civic  and  industrial 
understanding  that  it  should  be  taught  at  the  period  when  it  can 
be  taught  fully  and  taught  well.  The  economic  relationships  ex- 
isting within  a  modern  industrial  city  are  too  complicated  for 
fourth-grade  pupils.  There  is  a  dearth  of  proper  reading  matter ; 
and  also  a  dearth  of  organized  and  significant  materials  which 
the  teacher  can  present  orally.  Naturally  the  course  presupposes 
a  considerable  amount  of  observation  on  the  part  of  these  fourth- 
grade  classes,  but  observation  can  be  only  occasional  and  can  se- 
cure but  fragmentary  glimpses  of  the  various  things.  There 
must  be  reading  materials  in  the  hands  of  the  pupils  that  present 
the  various  industries,  etc.,  in  a  well-rounded,  organic  way,  be- 
fore the  fragmentary  glimpses  of  direct  observation  can  be  prop- 
erly understood.  The  necessary  reading  materials  should  be  pro- 
duced by  the  school  people  in  Grand  Rapids ;  but  they  should  be 
prepared  for  later  grades. 

Naturally  the  observations  and  the  general  life  experiences 
of  the  children  of  this  fourth-grade  level  should  be  utilized  so 
far  as  possible  for  developing  the  fundamental  concepts  relative 
to  the  geography  of  Grand  Rapids,  even  at  this  early  level.  The 
things  that  can  be  properly  done,  however,  at  this  point,  are  not 
sufficient  for  an  entire  half-year  of  work.  This  is  indicated  by 
the  general  practice  of  teachers  in  the  city.  The  outline  is  not 
actually  being  followed.  It  seems  that  an  outline  should  be  pre- 
pared which  can  be  followed, — always  permitting  the  desirable 
degree  of  flexibility,  of  course.  Where  a  half-year  of  work  in  any 
subject  is  looked  upon  as  sufficiently  important  as  to  justify  the 
expenditure  of  several  thousand  dollars  of  the  people's  money, 
it  is  of  sufficient  importance  to  warrant  the  careful  course-of- 
study  organization  of  types  of  work  that  can  be  fully  carried  on 
during  the  half-year.  To  provide  one  course  and  then  leave 
teachers  to  make  up  and  follow  another  is  an  indication  that  the 
work  has  not  been  done  seriously,  and  is  not  intended  for  actual 
direction.  Although  the  statement  is  here  made  in  connection 


INSTRUCTION  IN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  183 

with  one  specific  grade  and  subject,  the  statement  is  applicable 
to  portions  of  several  courses. 

The  course  in  geography  provided  for  the  second  half  of 
the  fourth  grade  is  of  a  very  different  character.  It  looks  at  the 
world  and  at  different  countries  not  from  the  specialized  eco- 
nomic point  of  view,  but  from  a  general  human  point  of  view. 
It  recommends  that  the  thought  experience  be  of  a  type  found 
in  "Little  Journeys  to  Holland,  Belgium,  and  Denmark."  "The 
Wide  World",  "Around  the  World",  "Seven  Little  Sisters", 
etc.  The  textbook  is  in  the  hands  of  the  pupils,  but  where  the 
spirit  of  the  course  is  carried  out  as  apparently  intended  the  chief 
value  is  as  a  reference  book.  So  far  as  they  go,  the  recommenda- 
tions are  excellent.  The  list  of  books,  however,  should  be  ex- 
tended and  should  be  improved  ,as  the  publishing  houses  im- 
prove their  offerings ;  and  what  is  more,  the  books  need  to  be  in 
the  hands  of  the  children  in  full  sets  for  the  work.  During  the 
course  of  the  year  they  need  to  read  a  number  of  books  for  full- 
ness of  experience  and  width  of  geographic  vision.  In  studies 
of  this  type  the  countries  need  be  taken  up  in  no  particular  order. 
The  thing  desired  is  mainly  geographical  experience  touching 
upon  life  of  all  sorts  in  the  various  lands.  With  a  well-worked- 
out  system  of  exchange  the  city  need  not  own  such  a  large  num- 
ber of  sets  of  books  of  each  kind  in  order  to  take  care  of  the 
work  in  all  of  the  various  buildings.  During  the  course  of  the 
year  a  single  set  might  be  used  in  eight  or  ten  different  build- 
ings. 

It  should  be  noted  by  the  school  authorities  that  the  pres- 
sent  method  of  handling  the  supplementary  reading  materials  is 
not  economical.  A  set  of  books  adapted  for  the  use  of  a  single 
grade  in  a  building  where  there  is  but  one  class  of  that  grade  may 
be  used  once  during  the  year  for  a  month,  and  then  stand  for 
eleven  months  idle  upon  the  book  shelves.  With  a  well-worked- 
out  system  of  exchange  it  would  be  possible  without  any  larger 
equipment  of  books  than  that  now  owned  by  the  city  to  supply 
five  times  as  much  reading  opportunity  to  the  classes  in  the 
various  buildings. 

When  the  pupils  have  reached  that  stage  of  maturity  that 
would  justify  the  systematic  study  of  the  economic  aspects  of 
geography,  an  outline  like  that  presented  for  the  work  of  the  5-1 
class  is  excellent.  There  is  a  question,  however,  as  to  whether 
this  course  should  be  placed  so  early  in  the  series.  It  is  the 
judgment  of  the  writer  that  it  comes  too  early.  If  more  history 
work  were  given  in  these  earlier  grades,  with  the  geography  at 
trie  time  in  the  background  but  fully  developed  as  the  back- 
ground of  the  history,  an  excellent  foundation  would  be  laid 


184  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

during  this  period  both  for  the  history  and  the  later  economic 
industrial  geography.  A  course  of  this  type  demands  a  wealth  of 
systematized  reading  materials,  together  with  the  necessary 
industrial  maps,  charts,  etc.  To  provide  an  outline  of  the  type 
here  presented  and  then  actually  furnish  the  pupils  in  most  of 
the  schools  with  only  the  regular  textbooks,  the  teachers  find  it 
scarcely  possible  to  do  anything  other  than  to  teach  the  text- 
books in  the  wasteful,  old-fashioned  way.  They  do  not  effective- 
ly lend  themselves  to  the  furtherance  of  such  a  program. 

The  first  half  of  the  sixth-grade  work  is  devoted  to  "geo- 
graphic principles."  The  first  four  of  the  six  topics  assigned 
to  this  grade  relate  to  mathematic  geography.  Certain  of  the 
things  need  to  be  known,  but  in  general  the  matters  actually 
needed  can  be  got  incidentally,  sufficiently  for  all  practical  pur- 
poses, and  therefore  should  require  practically  none  of  the  as- 
signed time  of  the  grade.  .  The  last  two  topics  relate  to  the  fac- 
tors of  climate  and  the  applications  of  the  principles  of  climate 
to  conditions  in  North  and  South  America.  Naturally,  a  good 
understanding  of  these  matters  is  desirable.  But  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  give  most  of  the  half-year  of  6-1  time  to  these  matters  of 
climate.  If  so  much  time  is  necessary  for  that  degree  of  under- 
standing necessary  for  all  practical  purposes,  then  the  pupils 
must  be  too  immature  for  the  work,  or  the  teaching  helps  are  in- 
adequate for  the  purpose. 

It  is  the  judgment  of  the  writer  that  at  this  particular  level 
of  geographic  teaching  the  principles  of  climate  should  be  intro- 
duced in  connection  with  studies  of  a  concrete  character  in  which 
the  climatic  principles  are  actually  seen  at  work  controlling  the 
factors  within  the  situation.  To  read  a  full  and  concrete  story 
of  Eskimo  life  is  the  method  of  making  perfectly  clear  to  children 
the  climatic  effects  of  high  latitudes.  To  read  a  story  of  life 
in  the  high  Alps,  is  to  teach  in  the  most  effective  fashion  the 
effects  of  high  altitudes  upon  climate.  A  concrete  study  of  the 
life  and  activities  of  peoples  in  Arabia  or  North  Africa  or  certain 
portions  of  our  far  West,  is  to  show  concretely  and  effectively 
the  effects  of  dryness  as  a  principle  of  geographic  control.  In 
connection  with  such  concrete  stories,  if  the  pupils  are  suffi- 
ciently mature,  one  finds  the  best  possible  setting  for  an  explan- 
ation of  the  dryness  through  a  consideration  of  prevailing  winds, 
the  proximity  of  bodies  of  water,  etc.  At  a  later  stage  of  the 
work  in  the  systematic  study  of  cotton,  wheat,  coffee,  corn,  etc., 
etc.,  again  we  are  dealing  with  concrete  situations  in  connection 
with  which  the  geographical  controls  can  be  seen  actually  and 
actively  at  work.  They  can  only  be  understood  rightly  as  they 
are  thus  seen  at  work.  We  are  not  here  recommending  that  the 
climatic  principles  be  taught  "incidentally".  We  are  recommend- 


INSTRUCTION  IN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  185 

ing  that  they  be  taught  as  they  are  seen  to  be  integral  portions 
of  real  situations ;  taught  consciously  and  purposively ;  but 
taught  in  connection  with  specific  situations  in  order  that  they 
may  be  taught  effectively.  When  taught  in  the  abstract  there 
are  only  the  forms  of  teaching.  It  is  not  vital.  The  results  are 
superficial  and  transient.  In  the  way  of  intellectual  benefits,  the 
work  is  largely  a  waste  of  time. 

Although  the  manual  presents  a  progressive  type  of  course 
for  the  seventh  grade,  the  actual  work  of  the  schools  follows  the 
text  for  the  most  part.  In  general  the  excellent  books  recom- 
mended for  the  work  of  the  7-1  grade  are  not  to  be  found  in  the 
different  buildings  in  sufficient  quantities  to  supply  the  individ- 
ual pupils,  and  cannot  therefore  be  effectively  used.  An  outline 
method  of  teaching  a  subject  of  this  type  with  pupils  gathering 
materials  from  a  great  variety  of  sources  cannot  be  satisfactory 
for  students  of  the  seventh  grade.  The  need  of  continuity,  of  a 
substantial  basis  of  organization  practically  forces  the  following 
of  the  textbook  upon  teachers.  Merely  to  provide  a  topical 
outline  is  not  really  to  provide  the  conditions  of  a  different  type 
of  work. 

So  much  time  has  been  given  to  a  consideration  of  the 
geography  because  of  the  very  great  importance  of  the  subject; 
and  because  of  the  possibilities  of  improvement  in  a  great  variety 
of  ways. 

Various  types  of  geographic  helps  are  supplied  to  the  build- 
ings for  the  work.  We  have  already  referred  to  the  so-called 
supplementary  reading.  For  the  most  part  it  is  reading  classi- 
fied as  of  this  type  that  should  be  the  basis  of  the  work.  As 
other  things  are  recommended  it  should  always  be  kept  in  mind 
that  proper  and  well-illustrated  reading,  on  the  one  hand,  and 
maps,  upon  the  other,  are  the  two  principal  things  needed  in  the 
work.  The  schools  appear  to  be  well  supplied  with  maps  and 
globes.  For  certain  aspects  of  the  work  teachers  express  the 
need  of  certain  other  maps  not  now  in  the  possession  of  the 
schools.  Probably  the  greatest  need  of  this  character  is  for 
outline  maps  of  different  countries  for  the  work  of  the  pupils  in 
the  upper  grades.  In  the  matter  of  pictures  one  finds  that  a  fair 
beginning  has  been  made  in  providing  the  schools  with  stereopti- 
con  outfits  and  with  geographic  slides  for  stereopticons.  This 
is  not  yet  well  developed,  either  on  the  side  of  the  quantity  of 
provision  or  upon  that  of  effective  use  of  the  materials  for  the 
teaching.  It  is  one  thing  to  present  pictures  and  talk  about  them 
at  random  and  quite  another  thing  to  use  them  for  illustrating 
the  details  of  a  general  well-rounded  treatment  of  a  geographic 
topic.  Pictures  should  generally  be  subsidiary  and  merely  for 


186  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

illustrating  the  details  of  the  larger  story  which  constitutes  the 
primary  thing. 

V.     ARITHMETIC 

Formal  work  begins  in  the  second  grade  and  receives  an  ade- 
quate amount  of  time  during  the  rest  of  the  course.  The  alge- 
braic work  suggested  and  provided  in  the  textbooks  is  not  used. 

The  purpose  of  the  work  in  general  appears  to  be  well  con- 
ceived. This  is  indicated  by  the  relative  emphasis  upon  the 
various  topics.  The  major  attention  is  given  to  skill,  accuracy, 
and  speed  in  computation.  Drill  in  these  fundamentals  covers 
whole  numbers,  common  and  decimal  fractions,  denominate  num- 
bers, percentage  and  its  applications,  business  operations,  and 
mensuration. 

An  interesting  situation  is  found  with  reference  to  the  use 
of  the  textbook.  Many  teachers  say  they  do  not  use  it  in  their 
work.  Others  use  it  but  little.  The  text  deals  so  largely  with 
so-called  reasoning  problems  in  which  the  fundamental  facts  are 
so  often  unfamiliar  or  obscure.  The  desire  seems  to  be,  every- 
where through  the  system,  for  problems  in  which  the  relations 
lie  clearly  upon  the  surface,  so  that  the  major  effort  may  be  ex- 
pended upon  the  computation  for  the  sake  of  the  drill  in  arith- 
metical operations.  This  practice  is  to  be  commended. 

For  drill  in  the  fundamental  operations  involving  whole 
numbers  the  Courtis  practice  material  is  used  in  the  schools 
throughout  the  city.  In  almost  all  cases  this  type  of  work  is 
looked  upon  with  favor  by  the  teachers  and  principals.  It  pro- 
vides the  large  amount  of  necessary  drill  ready  at  hand,  to- 
gether with  methods  of  diagnosis  of  individual  needs  and  meth- 
ods of  economically  checking  up  of  the  work.  Except  for  drill 
opportunity  afforded  by  this  material,  teachers  throughout  the 
system,  from  the  lower  grades  to  the  highest,  are  compelled  to 
write  the  major  portion  of  the.  problem  material  upon  the  black- 
board day  after  day.  The  copying  of  such  problems  upon  the 
blackboard  is  a  wasteful  method  of  using  the  expensive  time  of 
teachers.  Further,  it  often  results  in  arithmetic  lessons  that  are 
too  short  because  of  the  demands  for  blackboard  space  and  the 
various  demands  upon  the  teacher's  time.  It  is  further  a  relative- 
ly unprofitable  method  of  employing  the  classroom  time  of  the 
pupils  to  copy  the  long  lists  of  problems  that  really  are  needed 
when  the  work  is  effectively  done.  Good  work  generally  re- 
quires many  problems  per  day,  a  large  proportion  of  which  in 
connection  with  most  arithmetical  topics  should  be  of  the  easy 
so-called  mental  arithmetic  type,  with  only  a  minor  portion  of 
them  of  that  degree  of  complexity  requiring  written  work.  Na- 


INSTRUCTION  IN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  187 

turally  under  the  circumstances  teachers  cannot  supply  the  neces- 
sary wealth  of  easy  problems,  except  as  they  are  given  orally 
during  class  time. 

For  the  work  of  the  sixth  grade  a  pamphlet  has  been  pub- 
lished by  the  school  authorities  which  presents  a  considerable 
quantity  of  supplementary  arithmetic  problems.  Printed  helps 
of  this  type,  though  much  fuller  in  content  and  variety  of  arith- 
metical opportunity,  should  be  provided  for  the  work  of  each  of 
the  grades.  It  would  cost  much  less  to  supply  the  city  with 
such  printed  supplementary  helps  than  it  now  costs  to  pay  for 
that  time  of  the  teacher  that  is  devoted  to  preparing  daily  lists 
of  problems,  and  then  copying  them  upon  the  blackboard ;  an'd 
the  plan  could  be  made  much  more  effective.  This  is  recom- 
mended whatever  be  the  textbook  adopted  for  the  basic  treat- 
ment of  the  work. 

In  general,  the  work  is  of  the  textbook  and  drill  type,  good 
of  its  kind,  but  is  mostly  undeveloped  on  the  side  of  practical 
applications  during  the  later  grades.  The  manual  makes  the 
statement  that,  "In  the  primary  grades  the  emphasis  has  been 
placed  upon  the  four  fundamentals,  and  in  the  grammar  grades 
upon  the  applications  to  actual  life."  One  finds  no  great  amount 
of  evidence,  however,  of  the  application  of  the  arithmetic  to 
community  problems,  civic  problems,  occupational  problems, 
shop  problems,  as  these  are  actually  found  within  the  community 
itself.  In  one  school  visited  the  pupils  themselves  were  actually 
drawing  up  and  dictating  problem  material  as  based  upon  facts 
drawn  from  community  life.  For  example,  there  were  problems 
based  upon  the  increased  cost  of  sugar  at  the  present  time,  over 
what  it  was  two  years  ago;  the  increased  cost  of  gasoline  this 
year  over  what  it  was  a  year  ago ;  changes  in  the  cost  of  paper, 
of  dye-stuffs,  etc.  This  type  of  problem  relates  itself  very  inti- 
mately with  the  community  situation,  and  should  be  more  wide- 
ly used.  It  should  be  developed  so  as  to  relate  to  current  grocery 
problems,  problems  of  the  meat  market,  the  hardware  store,  the 
drygoods  store,  builders'  supplies,  public  utility  corporations, 
furniture  manufacture,  street  paving,  street  cleaning,  road  con- 
struction, household  accounts,  the  school  fuel  bill,  the  cost 
of  teaching  arithmetic  annually  to  15,000  pupils,  the  cost  of  sani- 
tary arrangements  and  precautions,  the  problems  of  the  play- 
ground and  park  situation,  etc.,  etc.  The  applications  of  arith- 
metic in  the  past  have  largely  dealt  with  commercial  trans- 
actions. Most  of  such  applications  are  important.  At  the  pres- 
ent time  there  are  many  other  commercial  applications  that  are 
also  important,  which  need  to  be  introduced.  But  besides  the 
applications  to  commercial  transactions,  there  should  be  appli- 


188  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

cations  to  a  large  variety  of  such  other  things  as  enumerated 
in  the  list. 

A  class  in  one  of  the  schools  took  up  the  task  of  working 
up  the  results  as  found  in  their  building  of  the  recent  survey 
Courtis  tests.  The  work  involved  a  series  of  problems  relating 
to  the  rinding  of  averages  and  of  percentages.  It  is  work  of  a 
practical  type  that  in  larger  degree  might  well  be  given  over  to 
the  pupils  for  training  in  the  last  grammar  grade  or  two.  Most 
of  the  work  of  this  type  should,  however,  be  reserved  for  the 
grades  of  the  high-school  level.  For  most  students  upon  this 
level  arithmetic  will  always  remain  the  most  important  mathe- 
matical subject. 

VI.    GRAMMAR,  LANGUAGE,  COMPOSITION 

This  series  of  subjects  receives  very  diverse  treatment  in 
different  schools  in  the  city.  Sometimes  large  emphasis  is 
placed  upon  the  grammar,  and  relatively  little  upon  the  composi- 
tion. Sometimes  the  large  emphasis  is  upon  the  composition, 
with  relatively  less  upon  the  grammar.  Sometimes  there  seems 
to  be  about  equal  amounts  of  time  given  to  the  two  sides  of  the 
matter.  In  the  grammar  grades  of  certain  schools  English  gram- 
mar is  entirely  omitted,  and  beginning  Latin  is  used  as  the 
avenue  for  the  teaching  of  such  grammar  as  the  children  need. 
Previous  to  the  sixth  grade  all  of  the  work  outlined  in  the 
printed  manual  is  bracketed  under  composition.  The  outline 
for  the  last  three  grades  provides  for  both  grammar  and  compo- 
sition. 

Grammar 

On  the  side  of  the  grammar,  a  beginning  language  book  of 
the  usual  miscellaneous  type  is  used  in  the  fifth  and  sixth 
grades,  and  an  advanced  text  of  systematic  English  grammar  in 
the  seventh  and  eighth  grades.  In  general  the  plan  of  treatment 
provided  in  the  text  is  followed.  The  materials  are  sometimes 
changed  in  the  order  of  treatment,  but  in  general  the  textbooks 
furnish  the  materials.  As  observed  on  the  grammar-grade  level 
the  work  consists  of  the  learning  of  grammatical  definitions, 
parsing,  and  analysis  of  sentences  as  the  major  features.  In  the 
few  classes  where  the  work  was  observed  it  appeared  to  differ 
rather  greatly  in  character.  Sometimes  the  pupils  were  alert, 
the  work  proceeded  rapidly  and  with  reasonable  efficiency,  and 
the  pupils  appeared  to  be  mastering  the  essentials  of  the  sub- 
ject. In  other  cases,  the  work  appeared  to  be  perfunctory,  the 
recitations  were  guesses,  the  pupils  appeared  to  be  very  little 
interested,  and  there  was  a  large  amount  of  general  passivity 


INSTRUCTION  IN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  189 

and  indifference.  In  one  class  visited  the  work  was  almost  wholly 
devoted  to  definitions  and  classifications,  and  the  teacher  was 
insisting  strenuously  upon  the  necessity  of  having  all  of  the 
definitions  accurate  as  stated  in  the  text.  In  other  classes  the 
emphasis  appeared  to  be  upon  a  more  active  type  of  exercise, 
namely,  the  analysis  of  sentences. 

The  writer  wishes  specially  to  commend  the  plan  of  teach- 
ing that  is  being  developed  in  one  of  the  buildings,  and  would 
recommend  its  extension  throughout  the  system.  Possibly  it 
may  already  be  employed  in  other  buildings,  but  was  not  ob- 
served. The  work  is  based  mainly  upon  the  active  exercise  of 
the  analysis  of  sentences.  A  series  of  sentences  is  drawn  up 
illustrating  each  important  grammatical  structure  or  relation- 
ship the  understanding  of  which  is  to  be  developed.  In  the  vari- 
ous lists  the  beginning  sentences  present  the  structure  or  the 
relationship  in  its  simplest  possible  form.  The  lists  of  sentences 
then  grow  gradually  more  difficult,  but  with  a  gradient  so  slight 
that  the  power  to  climb  the  more  difficult  levels  is  acquired  in 
the  process  of  approaching  those  levels.  Definitions  do  not 
have  to  be  learned.  Children  have  an  opportunity  to  see  the 
realities  as  they  exist  within  the  sentence  structure.  They  can 
explain  the  nature  and  relationships  of  those  realities.  This 
serves  as  a  substitute  for  the  learning  of  definitions  and  accom- 
plishes the  thing  that  is  really  desired.  The  textbook  has  some 
value  in  supplying  practice  material,  though  in  general  the  sen- 
tences supplied  are  not  well  chosen  or  arranged  for  carrying 
out  the  plan.  The  text  is  of  further  value  in  the  organization  of 
things  after  they  have  been  learned  in  the  more  active  way.  It 
is  good  for  summary  and  for  reference. 

To  make  this  plan  general  would  require  either  a  differ- 
ent text  or  printed  lists  of  sentence  material  for  the  purpose. 
Analysis  should  be  both  oral  and  graphic,  but  should  always 
be  simple,  direct,  time-saving,  and  deal  with  fundamentals.  It 
should  not  be  too  repetitious  of  things  that  are  already  fully 
known.  The  best  type  of  diagram  is  probably  one  in  which  the 
words  are  written  in  their  regular  sentence  order  and  arrange- 
ment, and  the  relationships  indicated  graphically  by  means  of 
simple  signs  or  symbols. 

The  present  method  of  teaching  beginning  Latin  in  the 
grammar  grades  of  certain  schools  as  a  means  of  arriving  at  a 
proper  understanding  of  English  grammar  has  grown  in  part  out 
of  a  dissatisfaction  with  the  results  achieved  through  the  more 
direct  route  of  teaching  the  English  grammar.  The  results  of  the 
experiment  appear  to  be  rather  more  satisfactory  than  those  of 
the  English  grammar  textbook  plan.  The  Latin  students  are 


190  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

able  to  pass  the  English  grammar  examinations  with  a  rather 
higher  standing;  and  in  addition  they  have  the  benefit  of  the 
Latin  understanding  as  well.  If  after  the  English  grammar 
teaching  has  been  strengthened  in  ways  easily  possible,  further 
experimentation  reveals  similar  equality  of  results,  there  would 
be  clear  justification  for  an  extension  of  the  plan. 

Composition 

As  one  inquires  into  the  composition  situation  one  early 
discovers  the  influential  presence  of  "The  News  Junior",  the 
children's  weekly  supplement  to  one  of  the  large  dailies.  In 
this  are  published  each  week  the  literary  contributions  of  three 
or  four  dozen  school  children.  By  furnishing  a  wide  reading 
public,  it  vitalizes  the  written  expression  of  hundreds  and  even 
thousands  of  the  children.  The  plan  is  commendable,  and  the 
schools  in  general  seem  to  be  taking  a  full  advantage  of  the  op- 
portunity. 

A  second  mode  of  vitalizing  the  composition  work  in  the 
eighth  grade  was  by  using  it  as  one  feature  in  the  training  for 
vocational  guidance.  In  one  of  the  buildings  the  pupils  of  the 
finishing  eighth-grade  class  were  making  a  fairly  extended  study, 
after  consultation  with  parents,  relatives,  and  associates  as  to 
the  possibilities  and  probabilities  of  future  vocational  choices. 
This  was  being  written  up  in  systematic  form  by  way  of  making 
definite  the  various  problems  involved.  In  other  cases  themes 
deal  with  the  situations  in  connection  with  various  occupations. 

Another  commendable  type  of  composition  work,  both  oral 
and  written,  is  the  preparation  of  careful  reports  on  observations 
or  collateral  reading  relative  to  historical  topics,  geographical 
topics,  civic  topics,  hygienic  topics,  nature  study  topics,  etc.  And 
there  is  also  full  practice  in  letter  writing. 

It  is  possible  that  the  written  composition  work  should  con- 
sist mainly  of  these  two  things.  As  one  teacher  phrases :  "These 
children  in  after-life  are  going  to  write  only  three  things :  let- 
ters, simple  memoranda,  and  occasionally  reports.  The  only  kind 
of  composition  in  which  they  need  training,  therefore,  are  the 
two  things  of  letter  writing  and  reports." 

This  teacher's  view  of  the  matter  is  sound  and  practical. 
It  is  also  in  complete  accord  with  the  demands  of  good  method  in 
the  teaching  of  the  so-called  content  subjects.  The  work  in 
civics,  hygiene,  sanitation,  history,  geography,  etc.,  require  for 
clear  thinking  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  an  abundance  of  oral  and 
written  expression.  A  proper  carrying  out  of  the  work  in  these 


INSTRUCTION  IN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  191 

subjects,  therefore,  takes  care  incidentally  of  an  endless  number 
and  variety  of  oral  and  written  reports. 

It  is  probable  that  relatively  little  time  should  be  given  upon 
the  program  to  the  separate  teaching  of  composition ;  and  that 
a  less  quantity  of  time  than  is  now  given  should  be  devoted  to 
the  teaching  of  the  English  grammar.  In  general,  the  composi- 
tion work  would  best  be  the  expression  work  in  connection  with 
all  of  the  content  subjects ;  and  the  grammar  work,  beyond  the 
minimum  essentials  covered  in  the  grammar  class,  should  be  the 
attention  of  the  pupils  to  their  language  in  order  to  make  it  as 
effective  and  correct  as  possible, — that  is  to  say,  applied  gram- 
mar. This  plan  would  eliminate  that  type  of  composition  where 
the  emphasis  is  upon  the  form  illustrated  or  studied  and  not 
upon  the  thought  presented.  It  would  also  eliminate  a  good 
deal  of  the  grammar  for  which  the  pupils  have  no  practical 
use.  Some  of  the  most  difficult  things  of  grammar,  for  example, 
relate  to  speech  forms  in  which  children  rarely  or  never  make 
mistakes.  As  the  grammar  tends  to  be  applied  grammer  and 
related  to  the  oral  and  written  composition,  the  things  not  need- 
ed are  automatically  omitted. 

VII.    SPELLING 

In  certain  of  the  buildings  spelling  receives  a  quite  large 
relative  amount  of  time.  In  other  buildings  only  a  half  or  a 
third  as  much  time  is  given  to  the  subject.  In  one  6-2  class  150 
minutes  of  class  work  per  week  are  given  to  the  subject,  and  in 
another  6-2  class  in  the  same  portion  of  the  city,  having  practi- 
cally the  same  character  of  population,  the  amount  of  time  re- 
ported is  only  35  minutes  per  week.  If  the  results  secured  are 
relatively  equal,  there  is  waste  of  time  and  effort  at  one  of  the 
schools.  If  the  work  in  the  building  employing  the  smaller 
amount  of  time  is  distinctly  inferior  to  that  of  the  other  building, 
then  the  amount  of  time  should  be  increased.  The  conclusion 
seems  unavoidable  that  some  supervisory  adjustment  should  be 
made.  Just  what  it  should  be,  however,  cannot  be  determined 
without  a  measurement  of  the  results  of  the  work  in  the  two 
buildings.  The  Survey  has  undertaken  no  such  measurements; 
but  the  supervisory  people  by  means  of  a  standardized  test, 
the  same  for  both  buildings,  could  easily  make  determinations. 
Out  of  an  extension  of  such  measurements  to  all  buildings  ought 
to  be  found  the  minimum  amount  of  time  necessary  for  the  class- 
work  in  the  schools  in  general. 

An  excellent  method  of  training  in  spelling  that  has  been 
well  developed  in  certain  of  the  buildings,  and  the  use  of  which 


192  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

should  be  carefully  fostered  in  all  of  them  is  well  represented 
by  the  advice  given  in  the  manual :  "The  pupils  are  expected 
to  keep  individual  or  class  lists  of  troublesome  words.  The 
realization  on  the  part  of  the  pupil  that  a  certain  word  gives  him 
difficulty  in  spelling  is  the  first  step  in  his  learning  to  spell  that 
word  correctly." 

As  a  matter  of  fact  it  is  this  aspect  of  the  spelling  training  to 
which  the  most  careful  attention  should  be  given.  Our  language 
is  largely  phonetic  and  wide-awake  pupils  spell  most  of  the  words 
that  they  use  in  their  writing  correctly  without  any  training  be- 
yond that  of  the  primary  grades.  By  much  correct  writing  in 
connection  with  their  composition  work,  etc.,  they  fix  habits  of 
spelling  most  of  their  words  correctly.  Words  that  they  miss 
should  be  caught  early  before  habits  are  fixed  in  connection  with 
the  use  of  the  words.  They  should  find  their  way  into  the  list  of 
words  that  need  watching,  so  that  a  word  misspelled  once  can- 
not, if  proper  attention  is  given  to  the  matter,  be  misspelled  in 
their  writing  a  second  time ;  or  at  least  not  for  long. 

In  the  primary  grades  it  is  desirable  to  spell  all  kinds  of 
words,  though  usually  with  the  printed  or  written  word  before 
the  pupil  as  he  spells.  The  purpose  of  this  training  is  to  asso- 
ciate phonetic  and  letter  values,  and  to  develop  an  appreciation 
of  the  letter  content  of  words  in  general.  After  the  third  grade, 
if  the  written  composition  work  is  of  sufficient  quantity,  this 
appreciation  of  the  letter  content  of  words  is  well  taken  care  of 
through  the  composition.  There  is  little  need,  therefore,  in  the 
case  of  most  pupils  of  employing  time  in  the  spelling  class  for 
the  purpose. 

The  word  lists  presented  in  the  prescribed  spelling  text, 
which  is  universally  used  throughout  the  city,  are  in  part  made 
up  of  words  that  are  phonetic  and  which  are  not  sufficiently  fre- 
quently misspelled  to  justify  the  expenditure  upon  them  of 
much  class  study  and  recitation  time.  In  part  they  can  be  justi- 
fied as  training  in  the  appreciation  of  the  letter  content  of  words ; 
but  if  the  composition  work  is  filled  out  so  as  to  cover  reports  on 
all  sorts  of  themes,  thus  involving  a  varied  vocabulary,  the  com- 
position work  affords  sufficient  exercise  of  this  type. 

Other  words  in  the  prescribed  spelling  text  are  those  that  are 
misspelled  with  considerable  frequency  in  the  written  work  of 
students.  They  need  study  by  those  who  misspell  them.  It  is 
difficult  to  find  any  justification  of  spending  time  upon  them  by 
students  who  do  not  misspell  them. 

It  is  recommended  that  previous  to  assignment  of  lists  of 
words  for  careful  study  a  rapid  written,  test  covering  a  fairly 
large  number  of  words  be  made ;  that  pupils  be  excused  entirely 


INSTRUCTION  IN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  193 

from  a  study  of  words  that  are  not  misspelled ;  that  where  a 
word  is  misspelled  by  a  very  few  pupils  that  it  be  assigned  for 
the  study  only  of  those  pupils  who  have  misspelled  the  word; 
that  class  study  and  recitation  be  devoted  to  only  those  words 
that  were  misspelled  with  considerable  frequency  by  the  class; 
that  the  place  where  the  mistakes  were  made  be  pointed  out  to 
the  class  in  their  study  of  the  lesson  in  order  that  they  may  know 
the  things  for  which  they  must  be  on  their  guard ;  that  the  work 
of  the  recitation  be  not  so  much  sensory  drill  in  spelling  the 
word  over  and  over  again,  in  ways  observed  in  certain  classes, 
but  that  it  be  attention  to  the  hard  spots  in  the  words  and  having 
pupils  point  out  and  explain  the  things  against  which  they 
must  keep  watch ;  and  finally,  that  the  words  thus  taught  should 
be  reviewed  in  study  and  class  periods  occasionally  by  way  of 
keeping  in  mind  the  things  learned  until  habits  of  correct  spell- 
ing are  definitely  fixed  in  the  case  of  the  majority  of  the  pupils. 

By  this  method  of  elimination  far  fewer  words  will  need 
to  be  taught ;  they  can  be  taught  with  greater  effectiveness ;  and 
much  less  time  need  be  consumed.  In  the  case  of  the  majority 
of  the  pupils,  they  can  be  doing  things  that  are  more  profitable  to 
them. 

It  appears  that  the  spelling  of  word  lists  is  now  considered 
the  basic  training  for  correct  spelling.  It  is  the  belief  of  the 
writer  that  the  work  can  be  made  more  effective  if  the  compo- 
sition work  as  fully  developed  is  looked  upon  as  the  primary 
exercise  in  the  training  of  spelling.  We  find  here  another  rea- 
son for  a  further  development  of  the  composition  work. 

The  thing  to  be  aimed  at  chiefly  is  to  develop  a  habit  on  the 
part  of  the  pupils  of  watching  every  word,  as  they  write  it,  so 
as  to  be  quite  sure  that  they  have  it  correct  before  setting  it  down 
upon  their  papers,  or  before  leaving  it  if  it  has  been  written 
incorrectly.  The  thing  most  needed  is  the  habit  of  looking  up 
words  in  the  dictionary  or  in  their  corrective  word-lists,  when- 
ever there  is  any  doubt  in  the  matter.  The  certainty  that  they 
are  going  to  be  caught  in  case  they  misspell  words  and  that  there 
is  going  to  be  intensive  corrective  drill  on  the  words  that  are 
caught,  is  a  large  part  of  the  stimulation  to  watchfulness. 

The  plan  requires  pupil-help  in  the  reading  of  the  papers  for 
catching  all  misspelled  words.  It  is  excellent  training  in  spelling 
for  the  readers,  however,  since  it  develops  exactly  the  habit  de- 
sired, namely,  the  critical  habit  of  looking  intimately  into  the 
letter-structure  of  words  by  way  of  seeing  if  they  are  correctly 
spelled. 


194  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

VIII.     NATURE  STUDY 

With  very  few  exceptions  elementary  science  is  confined  to 
the  first  four  grades,  and  does  not  find  a  place  upon  the  program 
during  the  last  four  grades.  The  course  of  study  manual  out- 
lines work  for  all  eight  grades,  covering  plant  life,  sea  life,  bird 
life,  insect  life,  pond  life,  rocks  and  minerals,  and  the  weather. 
The  work  consists  mainly  of  observation  and  discussion  by  way 
of  familiarizing  children  with  and  making  them  conscious  of 
common  surrounding  phenomena  of  nature.  The  mode  of  treat- 
ment is  of  a  type  that  for  the  most  part  exhausts  the  possibilities 
of  the  subject  by  the  time  the  fifth  grade  is  reached.  If  the  work 
is  to  continue  through  the  last  four  grades,  different  modes  of 
work  using  different  materials  become  necessary. 

In  one  building  the  elementary  science  is  given  full  time 
upon  the  program  through  all  of  the  later  grades,  and  in  one  of 
the  junior  high  schools  elementary  science  finds  a  place  in  the 
last  semester  of  the  eighth  grade.  These  developments  repre- 
sent a  tendency  that  should  be  encouraged.  The  course  of  work 
in  these  later  grades  should  be  very  different  from  that  recom- 
mended in  the  manual.  It  should  deal  rather  more  with  the 
science  involved  in  the  concrete  things  and  concrete  situations 
in  which  the  children  are  already  interested,  and  with  which 
they  are  actively  concerned  in  their  work,  their  play,  their  home 
life,  etc.  The  elementary  science  should  deal  with  electric  bells, 
electric  lights,  telephone,  telegraph,  batteries,  cells,  machines, 
gas  engines,  the  school  heating  and  ventilation  plant,  the  refrig- 
erator, the  cultivation  of  plants  in  the  school  and  the  home 
garden,  the  care  of  the  milk  supply,  the  sanitary  aspects  of  the 
water  supply,  the  protection  of  trees  from  the  depredations  of 
noxious  insects,  etc.,  etc.  Practical  things  and  situations  with 
which  the  children  are  concerned  present  the  opportunity  for  a 
great  abundance  of  vital  elementary  science  work.  On  this 
level  there  should  be  no  great  attempt  to  systematize  it  unduly. 
It  is  mainly  a  matter  of  unravelling  the  science  elements  as  they 
enter  into  the  many  situations,  and  of  seeing  them  at  work.  The 
purpose  is  familiarity  with  the  endless  variety  of  science  matters 
that  make  up  one's  environment. 

Naturally  the  work  needs  to  be  rich  in  actual  contact  with 
realities,  with  observation,  experimentation,  and  actual  control 
of  the  science  factors.  The  present  use  of  museum  materials  for 
the  bird  and  mineralogical  study,  and  of  the  field  observations 
will  be  continued.  But  there  is  further  a  large  need  also  of 
laboratory  opportunity.  We  do  not  have  reference  to  such  syste- 
matic work  as  found  in  the  high-school  laboratories,  nor  to  ex- 
pensive apparatus  of  the  type  there  used.  But  to  study  elec- 


INSTRUCTION  IN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  195 

tricity,  the  children  do  need  some  common  electrical  appliances 
like  cells,  wiring  materials,  electric  bells,  electric  light  globes, 
toy  motors,  etc.  A  good  many  of  the  things  can  be  brought  in 
by  the  pupils,  and  others  can  be  made  in  their  manual  training 
hour.  In  a  study  of  fermentation,  sterilization,  pasteurization, 
etc.,  pupils  will  need  only  such  containing  vessels  and  chemical 
thermometers  as  can  be  borrowed  from  the  domestic  science 
room.  In  studying  atmospheric  precipitation,  one  needs  only  a 
glass  or  metal  vessel  of  water  and  a  bit  of  ice.  Resourceful  spe- 
cial teachers  who  know  science  can  bring  pupils  into  contact  with 
a  large  variety  of  scientific  phenomena  without  elaborate  appar- 
atus. Naturally  there  are  certain  inexpensive  pieces  of  appar- 
atus that  will  have  to  be  furnished,  and  a  good  many  kinds  of 
inexpensive  supplies,  before  the  work  can  be  well  done. 

Very  many  of  the  science  situations  will  be  met  with  in  the 
shop,  kitchen,  and  school  and  home  garden  work  of  the  children. 
Some  of  such  science  will  be  observational  only.  Other  portions 
will  be  taken  up  for  further  laboratory  elucidation  and  analysis. 
This  work  cannot  be  exhaustive  or  quantitative.  The  purpose 
is  chiefly  to  bring  children  into  observant  and  thoughtful  con- 
tact with  scientific  realities  so  as  to  develop  a  familiarity  with 
these  realities.  If  they  do  not  go  on  to  high  school  they  will 
have  some  acquaintance  with  things  with  which  they  will  have 
to  deal  all  their  lives.  If  they  go  to  high  school,  a  certain  founda- 
tional  understanding  will  have  been  laid  for  the  later  more  exact 
and  intensive  work. 

Elementary  science  is  not  science  unless  it  deals  with  reali- 
ties in  ways  mentioned.  But  not  all  reality  can  be  met  with  in 
immediate  experience.  Very  often  this  latter  is  chiefly  of  value 
simply  as  supplying  the  alphabet  for  a  far  wider  even  though 
more  superficial  contact  with  wider  reality  to  be  obtained 
through  reading.  It  is  certain  that  in  connection  with  many  of 
the  things  studied  there  should  also  be  a  quantity  of  reading  ma- 
terial for  purposes  of  organization  of  the  science  involved  and  for 
the  purpose  of  extending  the  pupils'  understanding  to  other  re- 
lated interesting  things  with  which  he  cannot  be  actually  in  im- 
mediate contact.  As  one  studies,  for  example,  the  protection  of 
trees  and  plants  from  noxious  insects,  it  is  possible  for  the 
children  to  have  only  glimpses  here  and  there  within  the  city  of 
the  actual  ravages  of  such  insects.  These  glimpses  are  necessary 
for  an  understanding  of  the  general  problem,  and  for  giving  them 
a  sense  of  the  realities  involved.  After  such  familiarity  with  a 
few  fragmentary  instances,  they  need  a  few  dozen  pages  of  illus- 
trated reading  matter  which  shows  the  nature  of  the'  most  im- 
portant types  of  insect  ravages,  the  things  most  often  attacked, 


196  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

the  insects  that  make  the  attacks,  the  nature  of  the  injury,  the 
economic  and  geographic  extent  of  the  injurious  influence,  etc. 
This  larger  understanding  is  the  thing  chiefly  to  be  aimed  at. 
The  simple  observations  made  in  field  and  classroom  work  are 
in  large  measure  but  preparatory  for  the  reading  work  that 
presents  the  situation  in  a  large  and  organized  way.  The  same 
can  be  said  for  many  of  the  other  science  topics.  Our  science 
work  in  the  elementary  school  tends  often  to  be  weak  largely 
because  we  have  only  the  observational  glimpses  and  the  random 
discussion  relating  to  these,  and  then  do  not  utilize  the  alphabet 
of  nature  thus  learned  for  seeing  the  wider  significances. 

A  realization  of  this  need  for  readings  is  general  through- 
out the  city  system.  In  one  of  the  buildings  one  finds  a  system- 
atized series  of  readings  supplied  in  sets  large  enough  for  class 
use,  and  intended  to  do  for  the  subject  covered  the  thing  recom- 
mended in  the  preceding  paragraph.  Such  books  as  the  follow- 
ing are  used :  Fultz'  "Seed  Travelers",  Morley's  "Butterflies 
and  Bees",  Miller's  "True  Bird  Stories",  Stoke's  "Ten  Common 
Trees",  and  "Stories  for  Wonder  Eyes".  The  principal  stated 
that  she  also  wanted  a  book  suited  to  the  interests  and  maturity 
of  the  childen  upon  rocks  and  minerals,  such  as  she  has  been  as 
yet  unable  to  find. 

For  the  science  work  of  these  grades  proper  reading  ma- 
terials, well  illustrated,  are  often  more  important  than  expensive 
laboratory  apparatus  or  museum  materials.  The  schools  should 
have  these  latter  things,  it  is  true;  but  in  general,  it  is  not  the 
laboratory  side  but  rather  the  reading  side  of  the  problem  that 
presents  the  greatest  difficulty.  The  educational  profession  has 
not  yet  developed  a  sufficient  demand  for  these  reading  ma- 
terials, and  the  natural  consequence  is  that  suitable  readings  on 
many  of  the  topics  are  difficult  or  impossible  to  secure. 

It  may  be  said  the  teachers  would  best  present  the  matters 
orally.  To  begin  with,  teachers  in  general  have  not  the  neces- 
sary information.  They  have  neither  the  materials  nor  the  time 
for  getting  them ;  and  further,  under  present  conditions  they 
need  a  type  of  reading  materials  for  securing  the  information 
themselves  that  is  similar  in  most  respects  to  that  needed  by  the 
pupils.  To  leave  the  matter  to  the  general  grade  teachers  under 
present  conditions  is  to  demand  of  them  the  impossible.  The 
work  can  be  done  only  as  it  is  departmentalized  and  put  into  the 
hands  of  special  teachers  who  give  their  whole  time  to  the  work. 

IX.    PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

Physical  education  presents  problems  of  great  complexity 
because  the  training  involves  the  distribution  of  duties  among 


INSTRUCTION  IN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  197 

classroom  teachers,  the  physical  training  department,  the  school 
physician,  and  the  school  nurse.  The  work  must  then  look 
toward  building  up  the  individual  physically,  the  formation  of 
right  habits,  prevention  of  wrong  habits  and  of  deleterious  con- 
ditions, the  giving  of  information  concerning  hygiene  and  sani- 
tation, the  generous  use  of  physical  play,  the  use  of  corrective 
exercises  for  those  to  whom  the  play  is  insufficient  for  physical 
development,  etc. 

The  field  is  one  in  which  it  is  generally  recognized  that  ex- 
perimental education  is  the  only  type  that  can  be  considered  effi- 
cient. The  mere  memorizing  of  facts  from  books  is  seen  to  be 
an  ineffective  method  of  accomplishing  the  ends  in  view. 

On  the  side  of  the  upbuilding  of  the  individual  physically, 
the  program  of  work  in  Grand  Rapids  schools  provides  for  a 
very  elaborate  course  of  formal  gymnastics,  and  a  parallel  course 
of  plays,  games,  marches,  rhythmic  exercises,  etc.  The  formal 
exercises  have  been  pretty  thoroughly  systematized  and  to  these 
the  major  portion  of  the  time  is  devoted.  The  evidence  for  the 
relatively  large  amount  of  time  given  to  formal  gymnastics  was 
obtained  chiefly  from  principals  and  teachers ;  it  must  be  stated 
in  this  connection  that  the  writer  during  eight  days  of  visiting 
schools  when  they  were  in  session  did  not  observe  the  use  of 
the  formal  gymnastics  in  any  of  the  physical  training  exercises 
met  with.  In  almost  all  cases,  the  weather  being  fine,  the  work 
was  out  of  doors  upon  the  playgrounds,  and  consisted  chiefly  of 
active  games,  rhythmic  exercises,  etc.,  of  the  type  that  has  the 
greater  appeal  to  children,  and  which  are  greatly  superior  for 
physical  development  than  the  formal  classroom  posturing  pro- 
vided for  in  the  formal  portion  of  the  manual.  There  seems  to 
be  a  clear  tendency  toward  diminishing  the  quantity  of  emphasis 
to  be  placed  upon  the  calisthenics,  and  a  large  increase  of  em- 
phasis upon  active  play.  This  tendency  cannot  be  too  highly 
commended. 

The  effective  physical  development  to  be  obtained  through 
active  play  has  been  and  is  yet  in  part  restricted  because  of  the 
unsuitability  of  the  physical  equipment  provided  at  so  many  of 
the  schools.  Playgrounds  in  some  cases  are  too  small.  The 
board  of  education  in  recognition  of  this  fact  is  at  present  doing 
as  much  as  the  funds  will  permit  in  the  way  of  enlarging  outdoor 
playground  facilities.  Even  more  serious  is  the  lack  in  the  ma- 
jority of  the  older  buildings  of  indoor  play  opportunities  during 
those  months  when  outdoor  play  is  in  part  inhibited  by  weather 
conditions.  About  all  has  been  done  by  the  school  authorities 
that  is  possible  in  the  way  of  fitting  up  basement  playrooms.  An 
undeveloped  possibility  is  the  use  of  movable  furniture  in  class- 


198  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

rooms  that  will  permit  a  variety  of  uses  of  the  rooms,  including 
the  physical  training.  The  suggestion  is  more  practical  for  first- 
floor  rooms  than  for  those  of  the  second  floor,  because  of  the 
character  of  the  floors  in  the  old  buildings. 

All  of  our  large  cities  are  finding  that  the  provision  for  ade- 
quate physical  play  on  the  part  of  children  through  the  entire 
year  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  problems,  and  one  which  de- 
mands large  community  investment  both  in  buildings  and  in 
grounds.  The -problem  should  be  solved  by  the  community  in 
connection  with  the  total  park  and  recreation  movement,  and 
should  not  be  looked  upon  simply  as  a  public  school  movement. 
Whether  an  elaborate  school  plant  is  economical  or  not  to  the 
community  depends  upon  the  quantity  of  its  use  on  the  part  of 
all  classes,  both  juvenile  and  adult. 

In  the  matter  of  training  the  children  in  the  informational 
aspects  of  hygiene  and  sanitation,  a  reading  course  in  the  subject 
has  been  provided  which  covers  all  of  the  grades  beginning  with 
the  fourth.  To  this  it  appears  that  about  thirty  minutes  per 
week  is  given  in  each  of  the  grades.  The  fourth  grade  reads  an 
introductory  physiology.  The  fifth  and  sixth  grades  read  books 
dealing  in  concrete  interesting  ways  with  personal  hygiene  and 
community  sanitation.  The  seventh  and  eighth  grades  read  a 
more  advanced  book  of  physiology  mainly,  with  some  attention 
to  hygiene.  In  general  it  is  expected  that  the  books  be  read, 
understood,  and  the  facts  appreciated  so  that  they  can  be  used 
in  the  development  of  habits ;  but  it  appears  not  to  be  expected 
that  the  books  shall  be  memorized  and  the  facts  given  back 
to  the  teacher  in  the  old-type  recitation  and  examination.  The 
reading  gives  a  general  over-view  of  things  that  should  be  under- 
stood. It  makes  the  necessary  suggestions.  It  intends  to  de- 
velop right  attitudes  towards  the  whole  matter  of  personal  and 
community  hygiene.  The  plan  is  good  so  far  as  it  goes.  But  it 
is  insufficient.  The  thing  most  needed  in  the  further  develop- 
ment of  the  plan  is  dependent  upon  the  work  of  the  school 
physicians  and  nurses.  At  the  present  time  the  city  is  very  in- 
sufficiently supplied  with  both  physicians  and  nurses.  It  is 
these,  however  (partly  through  talks  to  classes,  but  in  larger 
degree  incidentally  but  systematically  and  in  connection  with 
health  supervision)  who  should  keep  alive  in  the  minds  of  the 
children,  and  drive  home  because  of  the  authoritative  force  of 
their  position,  the  suggestions  and  information  on  hygiene  and 
sanitation  that  have  been  met  with  in  connection  with  the  reading 
covered  in  the  classroom.  Just  as  we  are  coming  to  demand  that 
vocational  teaching  shall  be  given  by  people  who  are  practical 
specialists  in  the  several  fields,  so  we  are  coming  to  feel  that 


INSTRUCTION  IN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  199 

the  responsible  instruction  in  hygiene  and  sanitation  in  its  later 
stages  and  in  part  all  along  the  line  should  be  given  by  those 
who  are  felt  by  the  pupils  to  be  thorough  and  practical  special- 
ists in  the  field.  Teaching  here  should  have  the  sanction  of  medi- 
cal authority.  In  the  preliminary  readings  the  teachers  can  lay 
a  broad  and  secure  foundation  for  the  work.  On  this,  then, 
physicians  and  school  nurses  can  build  with  effectiveness.  In 
the  textbooks  chosen  by  the  city  it  is  possible  that  the  science 
motive  is  relatively  too  prominent.  Children  are  not  intro- 
spective. They  can  best  be  reached  by  readings  in  which  the 
social  motive  is  dominant.  Materials  of  this  character  are  rather 
rapidly  being  made  available  by  our  publishing  houses  and  by 
health  officials.  There  can  probably  be  no  objection  to  leaving 
the  science  reading  in  the  course  as  full  as  at  present  in  the 
seventh  and  eighth  grades.  But  other  readings  should  be  added 
which  approach  the  problems  more  from  the  social  point  of 
view  at  the  same  time.  Since  the  subject  is  more  important  than 
grammar,  time  can  be  found  for  the  extra  reading  recommended. 

X.    MUSIC 

No  sufficient  examination  was  made  of  the  teaching  of  music. 
Only  the  general  outlines  of  the  work  were  observed.  A  rather 
uniform  amount  of  time  is  given  to  the  subject  throughout  the 
various  buildings,  seventy-five  minutes  per  week  being  almost 
universal.  The  work  continues  throughout  the  high  school  as 
a  full  credit  course. 

So  far  as  possible  it  appears  that  the  work  in  vocal  music 
consists  of  singing.  It  is  built  upon  the  very  sound  theory  that 
"the  only  way  to  teach  children  to  sing  is  to  have  them  sing." 
The  plan  is  designed  to  provide  the  necessary  technical  informa- 
tion, but  since  there  are  eight  years  in  the  elementary  grades 
over  which  to  distribute  it,  it  is  possible  to  give  it  gradually,  to 
make  continual  application  of  it  without  taking  any  undue 
amount  of  time  from  that  practical  application  of  it  involved  in 
the  singing  by  the  pupils.  The  plan  appears  to  be  a  well-bal- 
anced one.  The  results  obtained  are  proof  of  the  effectiveness 
of  the  course. 

In  addition  to  the  vocal  music,  full  encouragement  is  given 
by  the  schools  to  instrumental.  It  is  certainly  unusual  to  find 
within  a  city  of  the  size  of  Grand  Rapids  eight  grammar-school 
orchestras,  with  an  instrumentation  ranging  from  ten  to  sixteen ; 
then  to  find  further  a  high-school  orchestra  in  each  of  the  three 
high  schools,  with  an  instrumentation  of  forty  pieces  in  the  larg- 
est. Each  grammar-grade  orchestra  is  usually  made  up  of 
pupils  drawn  from  two  or  three  neighboring  schools.  The  result 


200  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

is  that  practically  every  school  has  a  share  in  an  orchestra  that 
can  be  used  for  social  functions  at  the  school.  The  work  ap- 
pears to  be  developing  in  a  very  healthy  way,  and  promises  a 
great  future  for  community  music  in  Grand  Rapids. 

A  commendable  beginning  has  been  made  in  supplying  the 
schools  with  the  facilities  for  the  mechanical  reproduction  of  the 
world's  great  music.  The  schools  themselves  have  been  raising 
funds  for  purchasing  victrolas,  and  the  board  is  expending  $50 
per  year  in  the  purchase  of  records  which  circulate  among  the 
buildings.  The  sets,  of  which  the  board  has  already  purchased 
quite  a  number,  are  chosen  by  the  supervisor  of  music  so  as  to 
illustrate  the  different  musical  forms.  They  can  be  used,  there- 
fore, not  only  for  appreciation,  as  the  term  is  often  denned,  but 
also  for  understanding  of  forms  that  can  be  produced  in  no  other 
way  by  the  limited  facilities  in  the  elementary  schools.  It  is 
possible  that  the  city  might  do  well  to  be  even  more  generous 
than  $50  a  year,  considering  the  type  of  cheap  music  that  is  so 
often  dinned  into  children's  ears  at  our  commercialized  places  of 
entertainment.  This  is  but  a  small  per  cent  of  what  the  city  is 
actually  expending  in  a  single  night  upon  less  profitable  and  less 
effective  juvenile  entertainment. 

The  work  in  music  appears  to  be  proceeding  along  good 
lines.  The  only  thing  to  recommend  is  further  expansion  and 
development  of  things  already  under  way. 

XI.     MANUAL  TRAINING,  HOUSEHOLD  ARTS,  ETC. 

Manual  training  is  given  to  all  of  the  boys,  and  sewing  and 
cooking  to  all  of  the  girls  during  the  fifth,  sixth,  seventh  and 
eighth  grades.  The  amount  of  time  varies  in  different  schools. 
The  most  usual  allowance  is  one  hour  in  the  5-1,  two  hours  in 
the  5-2  and  sixth  grades,  and  two  hours  and  a  half  through  the 
seventh  and  eighth  grades.  In  one  of  the  junior  high  schools, 
however,  it  is  four  hours  a  week  during  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grades,  and  in  another  it  is  five  hours  per  week.  As  compared 
with  the  practice  of  cities  in  general,  the  time  given  to  these 
subjects  in  Grand  Rapids  is  quite  generous.  A  comparison  of  the 
average  amount  of  time  given  to  practical  activities  in  fifty 
cities,  as  reported  by  Professor  Holmes,  with  the  time  allowed 
in  Grand  Rapids  is  submitted  in  the  following  table.  The  regu- 
lar grade  buildings  are  differentiated  from  the  junior  high-school 
work  in  seventh  and  eighth  grades  in  the  table. 


INSTRUCTION  IN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  201 

TABLE  XXXI 
Time   Given  to  Manual  Training  and   Household   Occupations. 

Grand  Rapids  Average 

Grade  Bldgs.               Junior  H.  S.  Fifty  Cities 

Grade  5   60                                  60  50 

Grade  6     80                                  80  57 

Grade  7   ...                                                                 100                                135  72 

Grade  8  100                            -    153  74 

Total  340  428  253 

During  the  four  later  grades  of  the  elementary  school  the 
city  is  devoting  35  per  cent  and  in  the  Junior  High  School  about 
70  per  cent  more  time  to  the  practical  work  of  boys  and  girls 
than  is  the  average  of  cities  in  general  throughout  the  country. 
This  generous  time-allowance  represents  sound  and  progressive 
educational  policy.  The  allotment  is  not  too  large. 

Manual  Training  for  Boys 

The  manual  training  for  boys  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  grades  is 
knife-work  done  on  trays  placed  on  top  of  their  regular  class- 
room desks.  The  work  is  done  not  in  a  shop  but  in  the  class- 
rooms. This  results  in  economy  of  building  space  and  equip- 
ment. In  proportion  to  the  economy  thus  effected,  the  character 
of  the  work  suffers  through  lack  of  proper  shop  facilities. 

The  knife  exercises  are  directed  in  all  cases  by  special  teach- 
ers. These  are  women.  The  explanation  is  again  perhaps  econ- 
omy. It  would  appear  that  shop-work  for  boys  eleven  and 
twelve  years  of  age  should  cover  exercises  representing  a  variety 
of  mechanical  occupations  of  types  usually  performed  by  men, 
and  that  therefore  the  teachers  should  be  men.  There  is  a 
further  reason  possibly  for  the  employment  here  of  the  women 
teachers.  The  work  is  in  no  sense  of  a  practical  character,  and 
it  has  little  relation  to  labors  performed  in  any  practical  voca- 
tion, whether  of  men  or  of  women.  It  is  an  abstract  school-room 
affair.  It  can  be  handled  by  women  teachers  as  effectively  as  by 
men  teachers, — more  so  perhaps,  since  they  are  likely  to  look 
upon  it  with  greater  good-will.  A  man  teacher  familiar  with  the 
practical  activities  of  the  mechanical  world,  as  such  a  teacher 
ought  to  be,  is  likely  to  be  sufficiently  impatient  with  this  type  of 
manual  training. 

The  material  used  for  the  two  years  of  knife-work  is  thin 
basswood.  In  terms  of  the  printed  manual,  "All  of  the  articles 
made  are  of  practical  use  and  consist  of  the  following :  plant 
label,  twine  winder,  puzzle,  pencil  sharpener,  calender  stand, 
pencil  rack,  toothpick  holder,  brush-broom  holder,  sled,  box, 
salt-box,  ink-stand,  picture  frame,  necktie  rack,  and  book-rack." 


202  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

All  of  the  things  made  are  small.  In  only  three  or  four  cases  is 
the  longest  dimension  of  the  object  greater  than  six  inches.  The 
sled  made,  for  example,  is  only  six  inches  long  and  two  and  a 
half  inches  wide. 

Drawings  are  made  of  the  articles  before  the  article  is  be- 
gun. It  is  intended  that  these  be  working  drawings  and  that  the 
pupils,  after  the  drawings  are  completed,  should  work  from  the 
drawings.  The  intent  and  general  relations  of  this  plan  is  a  good 
one  since  it  properly  relates  the  drawing  portion  of  mechanical 
activities  to  the  activities  themselves. 

The  work  is  painfully  slow,  careful,  and  expensive.  It  re- 
quires eight  hours  distributed  over  eight  weeks  to  whittle  from 
thin  basswood  a  plant  label  five  inches  long  and  one  inch  wide. 
Thirty  hours  distributed  over  four  months  are  required  for  mak- 
ing a  match  box.  Twenty  hours  distributed  over  two  and  a  half 
months  are  consumed  in  making  the  toy  sled.  It  is  difficult  to 
believe  that  the  drill  is  of  the  correct  mechanical  character  for 
eleven  and  twelve-year-old  boys  when  so  much  time  must  elapse 
between  the  beginning  and  the  end  of  the  process.  The  work 
is  evidently  too  slow,  too  painfully  accurate  for  this  particular 
stage  of  the  boy's  development,  it  uses  materials  that  are  too 
small,  requiring  work  that  is  too  fine,  and  it  does  not  use  the 
woodworking  tools  that  ought  to  be  in  the  hands  of  boys  at  this 
age.  They  ought  to  be  in  the  shop  at  work-benches  with  wood- 
working tools  that  are  very  much  better  than  knives  for  the 
purpose.  Although  the  manual  states  that  the  things  made  are  of 
practical  use,  it  is  doubtful  if  all  of  them  are.  Even  when  so,  it 
is  doubtful  if  they  are  made  in  practical  ways, — that  is  to  say, 
using  processes  that  are  of  the  kind  that  the  practical  man  would 
use  for  making  the  things  in  question.  And  what  is  more,  match- 
boxes and  six-inch  toy  sleds  are  not  things  for  healthy  twelve- 
year-old  boys. 

The  present  work  has  many  values,  both  on  the  side  of  the 
drawing  and  of  the  practical  operations.  In  all  probability  the 
results  justify  the  expenditure  of  time,  effort,  and  money.  It  is 
believed,  however,  that  much  larger  and  more  justifiable  results 
could  be  secured.  We  would  therefore  recommend  that  the 
present  work  continue  until  a  better  type  can  be  provided;  but 
no  longer. 

The  work  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  is  in  specially 
equipped  shops.  The  teaching  is  done  by  men  teachers  who  have 
in  all  cases  had  practical  woodworking  experience  in  the  trades. 
They  are  primarily  practical-minded  men  and  secondarily  teach- 
ers of  the  practical  subject.  This  represents  sound  policy  which 
should  obtain  throughout  all  of  the  grades. 

Until  recently  the  work  in  seventh  and  eighth  grades  has 


INSTRUCTION  IN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  203 

been  a  rather  formal  course  of  the  usual  bench-work  type  in 
cabinetmaking.  The  course  of  study  manual  states  the  object: 
"The  primary  object  of  all  the  work  in  manual  training  is  to 
assist  in  general  education,  and  is  not  planned  to  be  vocational 
in  nature."  The  term  "general  education"  needs  to  be  reduced  to 
particulars  before  we  can  know  to  what  it  actually  refers.  When 
so  reduced  to  particulars,  if  the  manual  training  work  of  these 
grades  does  not  refer  in  some  way  to  the  vocational  activities  of 
the  world  in  general,  it  is  difficult  to  see  at  what  it  does  aim. 
The  work  at  this  stage  in  all  probability  should  be  definitely  pre- 
vocational,  the  purpose  being  twofold:  (1)  to  give  boys  a 
preliminary  acquaintance  with  the  fundamentals  of  a  large  vari- 
ety of  the  world's  occupations  for  several  justifiable  reasons; 
(2)  to  permit  the  boys  to  try  themselves  out  in  certain  prelimi- 
nary ways,  in  labors  relating  to  this  variety  of  fields,  as  one  of 
several  factors  involved  in  choosing  a  vocation. 

Bench  work  in  hand  furniture-making  has  a  place,  and  in  a 
furniture-manufacturing  city  like  Grand  Rapids  should  have 
perhaps  an  unusually  large  place  even  though  in  this  day  of 
machine  methods  cabinetmaking  is  the  art  of  but  a  very  few 
highly  trained  specialists.  But  although  such  cabinetmaking 
should  have  a  place,  it  is  very  doubtful  indeed  if  so  large  a  rela- 
tive quantity  of  time  should  be  given  to  it  during  these  grammar 
grades.  Such  a  course  largely  fails  to  take  care  of  either  of  the 
two  purposes  stated  above. 

Recent  tendency  indicates  proper  and  healthy  development. 
Printing  as  a  form  of  manual  training  has  been  introduced  into 
two  of  the  junior  high  schools,  and  in  the  proper  grades.  That 
the  more  recent  conception  within  the  city  is  that  such  manual- 
training  activities  should  be  prevocational  in  character  is  indi- 
cated by  the  fact  that  the  course  of  study  for  printing  in  the 
junior  high  schools  was  prepared  by  a  committee  of  practical 
printers  from  five  of  the  large  printing  establishments  of  the 
city.  This  is  excellent  and  represents  the  proper  mode  of  draw- 
ing up  courses  of  training  for  all  kinds  of  practical  activity  that 
may  be  introduced.  It  should  be  said  further  that  the  teacher  of 
printing  in  the  Junior  High  School  was  associated  with  this 
committee  of  practical  printers  in  drawing  up  the  course,  and 
thus  provided  the  point  of  view  of  the  educational  situation.  As 
other  practical  courses  are  drawn  up  by  men  familiar  with  con- 
ditions in  the  practical  occupations,  naturally  representatives 
from  the  school  organization  should  also  be  found  upon  the 
committees. 

At  the  Palmer  School  one  finds  a  practical  skilled  artisan 
giving  manual  training  in  concrete  construction.  The  boys  have 


204  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

been  making"  fence  posts,  rustic  flower  boxes,  foot  scrapers, 
square  and  cylindrical  pedestals,  concrete  blocks  and  tiles, 
benches,  etc.  The  work  is  of  a  practical  character  adapted  to  the 
maturity  of  boys  of  this  age,  and  should  be  extended  as  a  portion 
of  the  manual  training  in  all  of  the  centers,  but  particularly  in 
the  various  junior  high  schools. 

In  this  extension  of  the  manual-training  work,  one  finds 
also  a  ten-weeks  course  in  practical  sheet-metal  working,  and 
another  ten-weeks  course  of  forge  work  for  grammar-grade  pup- 
ils, in  one  of  the  junior  high  schools.  These  are  types  of  work 
that  properly  belong  in  a  well-built-out  junior  high-school  manual 
training  course. 

But  even  this  is  not  enough.  It  is  only  a  good  beginning 
toward  building  out  the  prevocational  activities  of  the  junior 
high  school  in  the  degree  demanded  by  the  purposes  involved. 
There  should  also  be  woodworking  on  the  side  of  carpentry  in 
addition  to  the  cabinetmaking;.  This  should  be  of  a  practical 
character  turning  out  economic  products.  On  the  educational 
side  it  cannot  be  of  a  proper  character  unless  there  is  the  respon- 
sibility for  the  practical  accomplishment  of  real  work.  There 
should  also  be  electrical  construction  consisting  of  elementary 
work  in  the  construction  of  batteries,  wiring1,  annunciator  sys- 
tems, electric  light  systems,  electric  toasters,  motor  and  dynamo 
construction,  etc.,  etc.  There  should  also  be  elementary  work 
dealing  with  still  other  varieties  of  building  materials,  the  mix- 
ing of  mortar,  the  laying  of  bricks  in  simple  bond,  the  mixing  of 
paints  and  varnishes,  the  preparation  of  various  surfaces  for 
painting,  painting,  varnishing,  finishing,  tile-laying,  sidewalk 
construction,  etc. 

A  valuable  part  of  such  a  course  for  boys  should  be  the 
taking  apart  and  assembling  of  old  machines  of  all  sorts  to  find 
out  how  they  work,  and  to  learn  the  various  scientific  principles 
involved  in  the  machines,  and  the  methods  of  transferring  and 
transforming  power  through  the  machines  to  the  final  perform- 
ing of  the  work.  To  take  apart  and  assemble  a  few  old  auto- 
mobiles, lathes,  pumps,  sewing-machines,  and  other  samples  from 
the  endless  variety  of  machines  accessible  should  be  not  only  an 
important  portion  of  one's  practical  mechanical  training,  but  at 
the  same  time  should  be  a  highly  important  portion  of  one's 
training  in  the  principles  and  practices  of  mechanical  science. 

For  taking  care  of  the  prevocational  activities  of  the  gram- 
mar grades  the  city  is  to  be  commended  for  having  adopted  the 
best  possible  administrative  arrangement  for  the  purpose  in  its 
junior  high  schools.  This  brings  together  so  large  a  number  of 
pupils  of  similar  ages  and  characteristics  that  it  is  possible  to 
have  a  large  variety  of  activities  and  yet  to  have  classes  large 


INSTRUCTION  IN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  205 

enough  to  make  this  variety  economically  justifiable.  Such  a 
variety  of  courses  cannot  possibly  be  developed  in  the  general 
grade  buildings.  They  cannot  afford  the  equipment,  nor  the 
space,  nor  the  teacher-labor  for  so  many  types  of  activity.  In 
carrying  out  the  program  recommended  the  city  will  find  it 
necessary  to  continue  its  present  policy  of  establishing  the  junior 
high  schools  until  all  of  the  children  of  these  grades  are  as- 
sembled in  schools  of  this  character.  Since  sixty  per  cent  of 
them  are  already  so  housed  the  city  is  in  an  administrative  posi- 
tion to  carry  out  the  recommendations  for  the  majority  of  the 
boys  at  the  present  time. 

HOUSEHOLD   OCCUPATIONS 

The  girls  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  grades  are  taught  sewing,  and 
those  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  cooking.  In  the  final 
semester  of  the  eighth  grade  they  are  given  a  further  half-year  of 
sewing.  All  of  the  work  is  taught  by  special  teachers,  who  are 
in  general  familiar  through  practical  experience  with  these  two 
household  occupations. 

The  sewing  in  large  part  is  the  making  or  mending  of  gar- 
ments for  themselves,  and  in  part  the  making  of  towels,  cooking 
bags,  etc.,  for  the  domestic  science  work  of  the  school.  The 
practical  purpose  vitalizes  the  work.  The  writer  did  not  ex- 
amine into  the  details  of  the  sewing  work,  but  the  outline  creates 
a  suspicion  that  it  may  be  open  in  some  small  degree  to  the  same 
criticisms  as  the  knife-work  for  the  boys  of  these  same  grades. 
To  expend  twenty  lessons  of  two  hours  each  in  the  fifth  grade 
in  making  a  percale,  gingham,  or  calico  apron  and  then  another 
twenty  lessons  of  two  hours  each  in  the  sixth  grade  in  making 
a  plain  white  percale  cooking  apron, — or  one  entire  year's  work 
in  the  making  of  two  aprons,— looks  like  an  over-elaboration  of 
this  task.  It  is  doubtful,  to  say  the  least  whether  the  schools 
are  justified  in  making  so  heavy  an  investment  in  training  girls 
at  this  immature  age  in  fine  needlework  when  most  of  the 
sewing  that  they  will  later  do  will  be  done  with  machines.  The 
writer  wishes  here  to  pronounce  no  judgment;  but  only  to  point 
out  to  the  school  authorities  that  it  represents  a  problem  that 
should  be  carefully  studied  by  specialists  in  the  field.  In  the 
field  of  needlework  girls  need  to  be  trained  for  the  things  that 
they  are  later  going  to  do.  There  will  be  some  sewing,  patch- 
ing, mending,  etc. ;  but  if  the  specialization  and  commercializa- 
tion of  garment-making  proceeds  much  farther,  by  the  time  the 
present  generation  of  fifth  and  sixth-grade  girls  have  reached 
womenhood  their  chief  function  in  this  field  will  be  the  ability  to 
select  wisely  and  with  good  taste  garments  and  other  articles  of 


206  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

needlework.  The  thing  needed  is  appreciation  and  understanding 
of  those  things  involved  in  the  finished  articles,  which  repre- 
sent good  taste,  durability,  adaptability  to  needs,  etc.,  rather 
than  the  mechanical  ability  to  make  the  things  themselves. 

This  changing  need  is  pointed  out  by  way  of  indicating  the 
need  of  certain  changes  possibly  in  the  courses  of  training.  Even 
though  the  hand  needlework  be  left  as  it  is,  there  should  be  a 
larger  quantity  of  study  of  the  things  that  make  up  different  kinds 
of  needlework:  studies  of  color  harmony,  by  haying  a  wide  as- 
sortment of  garments  either  actual  or  in  color  picture-plates  for 
study,  criticism,  judgment  and  choice:  a  study  of  the  simpler 
principles  of  garment  design,  again  not  through  the  practical 
labors  of  designing  but  through  the  study  of  the  particular  fea- 
tures of  a  wide  variety  of  garments;  similar  studies  of  trim- 
mings, edgings,  embroidery ;  similar  studies  applied  to  millinery ; 
also  studies  of  napkins,  tablecloths,  bed  and  pillow  coverings, 
curtains,  draperies,  etc.,  etc.  The  housewife's  major  problem 
of  today  is  not  how  to  make  these  things,  but  how  to  select 
them  wisely.  To  do  some  work  in  the  way  of  making  them  is 
undoubtedly  a  portion  of  the  necessary  training  in  appreciation 
and  understanding;  but  it  probably,  or  at  least  possibly,  should 
not  constitute  the  major  portion  of  such  training. 

In  case  the  practical  constructive  training  is  of  large  value 
for  taking  care  of  the  appreciation,  then  the  question  arises 
why  in  the  needlework  course  there  is  not  larger  attention  in  the 
grammar  grades  to  the  making  of  the  following,  none  of  which 
seems  to  be  included:  house  dress,  street  or  school  dress,  nap- 
kins, handkerchiefs,  pillow  cases,  sash  curtains,  table  covers, 
embroidery,  laces,  etc. 

The  cooking  work  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  so  far 
as  it  relates  to  activities  that  can  be  carried  on  within  the  kit- 
chen appears  to  be  much  better  balanced.  It  covers  examples 
from  about  every  possible  field  of  food  preparation.  But  in  ad- 
dition to  the  things  done  within  the  kitchen,  the  girls  should  also 
for  the  sake  of  the  training,  do  the  marketing  by  way  of  becom- 
ing acquainted  with  all  of  the  marketing  problems.  There  is 
also  a  need  of  responsibility  for  turning  out  a  product  that  is  to 
be  used  in  normal  ways.  Cooking  is  not  rightly  done  if  it  is 
merely  a  series  of  practice  exercises, — even  though  the  teacher's 
supervision  and  direction  be  of  such  a  careful  sort  as  to  secure 
the  correct  material  outcome  for  each  exercise.  The  informa- 
tion is  not  rightly  assimilated  nor  are  right  attitudes  of  mind 
developed  toward  the  work.  Illustrative  of  the  matter  was  the 
situation  found  in  one  of  the  large  buildings  where  the  girls  re- 
ceived fifty  minutes  of  domestic  science  each  day  for  five  days  in 


INSTRUCTION  IN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS  207 

the  week.  In  the  preparation  of  very  many  kinds  of  dishes,  they 
find  it  necessary  to  spend  the  time  one  day  in  the  preparation 
of  the  things  to  be  cooked,  and  then  after  setting  them  away 
in  the  refrigerator  for  twenty-four  hours,  on  the  following  day 
to  do  the  cooking.  In  other  cases  they  are  able  to  get  the 
cooking  half  done  during  the  fifty-minute  period,  but  then  have 
to  rush  away  and  leave  it  unfinished;  and  most  half-cooked 
things  are  unsuitable  for  a  continuation  of  the  process  on  the 
following  day.  Were  the  girls  in  that  building  preparing  actual 
meals  or  portions  of  actual  meals,  this  wasteful  and  ineffective 
method  of  training  could  not  continue  for  a  single  day.  This 
appears  to  be  an  extreme  case,  it  is  true ;  but  where  it  occurs 
shows  a  lack  of  seriousness  in  the  work ;  and  this  lack  of  serious- 
ness extends  to  the  work  of  other  buildings  that  have  the  double 
period,  if  there  is  no  method  of  placing  serious  responsibility 
upon  the  girls. 

A  further  recommendation  is  the  development  of  the  science 
aspects  of  the  work.  At  present  these  are  inadequately  de- 
veloped. A  portion  of  such  science  work  should  be  taken  care  of 
by  the  special  teacher  of  elementary  science  in  the  grammar 
grades,  and  a  portion  of  it  by  the  teachers  of  domestic  science. 
During  these  grades  the  elementary  science  work  of  the  girls 
should  be  separate  from  that  of  the  boys,  taught  always  by 
women  teachers  who  are  thoroughly  conversant  with  the  prob- 
lems and  exercises  in  domestic  science ;  and  the  two  departments 
should  be  in  close  co-operation  in  the  conduct  of  the  work. 

We  recommend  also  that  in  the  junior  high  schools  a  cook- 
ing course  of  suitable  type  should  be  opened  to  .the  boys.  Camp 
cooking,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  is  both  a  good  and  a  practical 
manual-training  course  for  boys.  Such  courses  conducted  in 
former  years  were  successful. 


CHAPTER  X 

INTRODUCTION  TO  HIGH- 
SCHOOL  REPORT 


The  following  chapter  presents  in  full  the  report  of  Professor 
C.  O.  Davis  on  the  secondary  schools.  In  addition  to  the  obser- 
vations made  by  Mr.  Davis, 'Superintendent  Francis  rendered  a 
brief  report  dealing  especially  with  the  junior  schools.  Super- 
intendent Francis  comments  on  the  great  advantage  which 
Grand  Rapids  enjoys  in  the  fact  that  the  junior  high  school  ex- 
periment is  being  tried  out  in  a  variety  of  different  forms.  He 
believes  that  this  furnishes  Grand  Rapids  with  the  opportunity 
of  arriving  ultimately  at  the  most  advantageous  form  of  or- 
ganization. Mr.  Francis  commends  the  organization  which  he 
observed  so  far  as  the  personal  characteristics  and  technical  qual- 
ifications of  the  officers  whom  he  encountered  are  concerned.  He 
comments  especially  on  the  fact  that  the  technical  teachers  are 
trained  in  the  methods  of  the  industries.  He  comments  on  the 
possibilities  of  a  greater  elaboration  of  the  special  subjects  and 
greater  emphasis  upon  the  general  activities  of  student  organiza- 
tions. \ 

The  writer  also  took  'the  opportunity  of  visiting  the  high 
schools  and  looked  especially  into  the  organization  of  the  junior 
eollege  and  the  junior  high  schools.  It  is  appropriate  for  him 
to  add  to  the  report  of  Mr.  Davis  certain  comments  with  regard 
to  these  schools. 

In  the  first  place,  there  can  be  no  doubt,  even  on,,  casual  ob- 
servation, that  the  equipment  of  the  Central  High  Scrrool  is  dis- 
tinctly superior  to  that  of  the  other  schools.  "Mr.  Davis  has 
brought  out  in  his  report  the  differences  between  the  various 
schools  in  detail  and  has  set  forth  very  fully  the  evidence  in  re- 
gard to  teachers  and  equipment. 

The  School  Board  and  the  school  officers  may  very  well  con- 
sider doing  more  to  equalize  high-school  opportunities  offered 
in  the  different  centers  and  also  the  better  standardization  of  all 


INTRODUCTION   TO    HIGH-SCHOOL   REPORT  209 

the  schools.     There  is  abundant  evidence  in  Mr.  Davis'  report 
that  standards  of  work  are  not  alike. 

The  largest  credit  is  due  the  Grand  Rapids  System  for  the 
organization  of  junior  high  schools.  The  experiment  has  been 
worked  out  in  a  conservative  way.  The  impressive  fact  about 
the  experiment  is  that  it  was  started  when  there  was  no  general 
recognition  of  the  importance  of  this 'type  of  organization.  To- 
day it  is  widely  recognized  that  the  sometime  break  between  the 
elementary  school  and  the  high  school  is  un-American  and  un- 
scientific. Grand  Rapids  was  a  pioneer  in  closing  up  this  breach. 

The  experiment,  as  Professor  Davis  has  pointed  out,  should 
be  pushed  further.  The  curriculum  of  the  Junior  High  School 
could  very  advantageously  be  elaborated.  For  example,  the  work 
in  mathematics  might  be  modified  in  such  a  way  as  to  introduce 
the  students  to  the  principles  and  problems  of  constructive  geo- 
metry and  to  the  simpler  algebraic  devices  which  make  it  rela- 
tively easy  to  solve  many  complicated  problems.  The  equipment 
for  nature  study  or  elementary  science  of  some  sort  should  be 
introduced  as  soon  as  possible  into  the  Junior  High  School, 
which  is  now  obliged  to  utilize  the  equipment  of  the  Central 
High  School. 

With  regard  to  the  Junior  College,  it  may  be  said  that  the  in- 
fluence of  the  University  of  Michigan  in  the  organization  of  this 
institution  has  been  very  large.  The  authorities  of  Grand  Rap- 
ids have  regarded  it  as  expedient  to  submit  all  of  the  details  of 
junior -college  organization  to  the  approval  of  the  officers  of  the 
University  of  Michigan.  These  officers  in  turn  have  treated  the 
experiment  with  much  interest  but  have  naturally  been  very  con- 
servative. If  the  enterprise  is  to  succeed,  somebody  must  be  bold 
enough  to  set  aside  conservative  suspicion  of  the  experiment. 
The  present  organization  is  shown  by  the  present  registration  to 
be  unworkable.  The  effort  to  segregate  the  college  classes  abso- 
lutely from  the  rest  of  the  high-school  organization  is  uneconomi- 
cal and  impractical.  This  can  be  illustrated  by  reference  to  one 
example.  Junior-college  mathematics  is  analytical  geometry. 
Anyone  who  wants  college  credit  for  mathematics  must  enter 
this  class  in  analytical  geometry.  Some  of  the  students  have  not 
had  enough  mathematics  in  their  high-school  course  to  justify 
their  taking  this  college  course.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  not 
thought  possible  at  the  present  moment  as  a  result  of  the  confer- 
ences with  the  University  of  Michigan  to  arrange  for  students  to 
take  lower  mathematics  because  it  is  the  accepted  theory  that 
junior-college  students  cannot  be  in  the  same  classes  as  high- 
school  students.  Thus,  a  student  who  ought  to  be  taking  trigo- 
nometry and  is  quite  prepared  for  that  subject  is  not  allowed  to 


210  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

go  into  the  class  in  trigonometry  and  secure  college  rcedit,  be- 
cause that  is  a  high-school  class.  He  is  introduced  into  the  class 
in  analytical  geometry  because  he  is  a  college  student  and  not 
because  he  has  had  the  proper  preliminary  training.  The  small 
junior-college  registration  makes  it  impossible  to  conduct  classes 
both  in  trigonometry  and  analytics. 

Setting  aside  the  institutional  conservatism  which  always  at- 
taches to  any  new  organization,  it  seems  to  the  present  writer, 
perfectly  clear  that  the  only  legitimate  form  of  organization 
which  could  be  developed  in  the  Grand  Rapids  Junior  College  is 
one  which  allows  a  student  to  take  that  branch  of  mathematics 
for  which  he  is  equipped.  This  arrangement  would  make  it  possi- 
ble to  utilize  the  opportunities  presented  by  some  of  the  small 
advanced  high-school  classes  in  mathematics.  The  character  of 
the  instruction  would  be  guaranteed  by  the  general  training  of  the 
high-school  faculty.  If  there  is  any  doubt  about  the  latter  mat- 
ter or  about  the  ability  of  the  students  who  have  pursued  these 
courses  with  advanced  high-school  students  to  compare  favorably 
with  college  students,  all  of  the  institutions  concerned  ought 
to  be  patient  enough  to  give  the  matter  at  least  a  fair  trial.  Let 
the  Junior  College  try  the  experiment  for  a  year  or  so.  Let  the 
students  who  go  out  of  the  mixed  classes  be  carefullly  observed 
in  their  later  college  work.  If  any  serious  questions  arise  with 
regard  to  their  ability  to  carry  college  work  after  receiving  this 
kind  of  training,  let  the  accrediting  of  these  junior-college  courses 
come  to  an  end.  The  experiment  in  its  present  form  cannot  suc- 
ceed. It  is  cramped  and  hampered  by  forms  of  organization 
which  are  not  natural  or  legitimate.  To  render  the  experiment 
absolutely  safe  against  all  possible  difficulties  is  to  render  it  so 
limited  in  its  scope  that  it  cannot  be  carried  on.  The  fact  that  the 
student  population  in  the  Junior  College  has  decreased  this  year 
as  compared  with  last  year  indicates  that  there  is  something 
radically  wrong. 

Another  phase  of  the  situation  that  deserves  comment  is  the 
tuition  requirement  imposed  by  the  Board  of  Education  upon 
students  who  take  junior-college  work.  First  it  may  be  noted 
that  the  present  tuition  does  not  pay  the  cost  of  instruction  per 
student  under  the  present  organization.  There  is  some  doubt  as 
to  the  legality  of  paying  for  junior-college  instruction  out  of 
municipal  educational  funds.  This  doubt  parallels  the  doubt 
that  once  existed  in  the  state  of  Michigan  before  the  famous  Kala- 
mazoo  decision  with  regard  to  the  legality  of  paying  out  of  muni- 
cipal funds  for  high-school  education.  Some  day  the  doubt  about 
junior  colleges  will  go  by  the  same  route  as  did  the  earlier  doubt 
about  high-school  expenditures.  It  will  ultimately  be  recognized 


INTRODUCTION   TO    HIGH-SCHOOL   REPORT  211 

in  Michigan  as  it  is  now  fully  recognized  in  California,  that  large 
municipalities  will  effect  for  the  people  of  the  city  a  genuine 
economy  by  offering  in  the  city  itself  educational  advantages  that 
extend  beyond  the  high-school  course.  As  Mr.  Davis  has  argued 
at  length,  a  great  many  students  from  Grand  Rapids  go  to  col- 
leges in  the  state  of  Michigan  and  elsewhere.  For  the  education 
of  these  people  the  state  and  the  city  are  making  liberal  contri- 
butions. The  cost  to  the  student  of  a  year  of  college  education 
in  some  other  city  is  very  much  greater  than  the  cost  of  a  year 
in  Grand  Rapids  itself.  Such  considerations  as  these  ought  to 
weigh  very  largely  with  the  Board  of  Education  of  Grand  Rapids 
in  deciding  whether  it  is  an  economy  to  offer  such  young  people 
a  junior-college  education  in  their  home  city.  The  geographical 
conditions  of  California  are  such  that  the  people  have  been  con- 
vinced of  the  wisdom  of  establishing  local  junior  high  schools. 
Whether  the  movement  comes  rapidly  or  more  slowly  in  the  mid- 
dle states,  it  is  certain  to  receive  in  the  next  few  years  a  thorough 
trial.  A  number  of  the  great  municipalities  in  the  middle  states 
are  undertaking  this  type  of  organization.  Grand  Rapids  in  its 
junior  high-school  organization  and  in  the  elaboration  of  its 
high  schools  has  taken  a  long  step  in  the  direction  of  a  complete 
education  of  its  young  people  at  public  expense.  The  line  of 
demarcation  between  the  elementary  school  and  the  high  school 
has  been  almost  entirely  erased  by  the  organization  of  the  junior 
high  school.  The  reasons  which  justify  that  intermediate  organ- 
ization can  be  applied  with  slight  modification  to  the  junior  col- 
lege. The  break  between  the  high  school  and  the  college  is  just 
as  disadvantageous  as  was  the  sometime  breach  between  the 
elementary  school  and  the  high  school.  Grand  Rapids  was  a 
pioneer  in  organizing  the  junior  high  school.  It  has  an  oppor- 
tunity, if  it  is  willing  to  set  aside  some  of  the  artificial  restric- 
tions which  now  hedge  in  its  junior  college,  to  become  one  of  the 
leaders  in  developing  that  institution  also.  It  is  the  belief  of 
the  present  writer  that  the  city  would  greatly  profit  by  a  thor- 
oughgoing trial  of  the  junior  college.  Evidence  in  favor  of  this 
move  is  difficult  to  present  beyond  the  evidence  which  Mr.  Davis 
has  set  forth  in  his  report.  Certainly  the  time  has  arrived  when 
the  city  ought  to  weigh  carefully  the  clear  alternative  of  giving 
the  junior  college  a  fair  trial  or  eliminating  it  altogether.  As  the 
institution  stands  today,  it  is  weighed  down  by  so  many  restric- 
tions that  it  can  not  be  described  as  a  flourishing  institution. 


CHAPTER  XI 

SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

Calvin  O.  Davis 


FOREWORD 

The  observations,  comments  and  recommendations  included 
in  the  portion  of  the  school  survey  immediately  following  deal 
with  the  provisions  which  Grand  Rapids  makes  for  secondary 
education  within  its  public  school  system.  This  includes  the 
organization  and  work  of  the  junior  high  schools,  the  senior  high 
schools,  and  the  Junior  College.  The  data  upon  which  the  de- 
ductions are  based  were  obtained  by  means  of  questionnaires 
distributed  to  the  teachers  and  administrative  officers,  analysis 
of  printed  material  pertaining  to  the  organization  and  admin- 
istration of  the  schools,  consultations  with  various  members  of 
the  administrative  and  teaching  staffs,  and  eight  days  spent  in 
actual  observation  and  study  of  the  several  schools  while  in  oper- 
ation. All  records,  printed  material,  and  other  aids  which  would 
in  any  manner  throw  light  upon  the  plan  and  conduct  of  these 
divisions  of  the  public  school  work  were  not  only  made  available 
for  perusal,  but  the  utmost  co-operation  and  assistance  was 
rendered  by  every  member  of  the  school  force,  in  order  that  a 
true  analysis  of  the  problems  under  investigation  might  be  reach- 
ed. Moreover,  the  most  cordial  welcome  was  extended  by  teach- 
ers, principals,  and  other  officials  in  visiting  the  several  rooms 
and  schools,  and  the  most  perfect  freedom  was  encouraged  in  ask- 
ing questions  not  alone  of  themselves,  but  of  the  pupils  and  as- 
sistants under  their  charge.  In  this  manner  frank,  full  and  cour- 
teous expressions  of  views  were  received  from  persons  of  varied 
interests,  experiences,  and  official  rank,  and  much  material  for  a 
composite  judgment  was  obtained. 

The  present  report,  therefore,  aims  to  be  an  unbiased  analy- 
sis of  the  facts  pertaining  to  the  secondary  schools  of  Grand  Rap- 
ids, (in  so  far  as  these  facts  were  derivable  from  the  investiga- 
tions conducted),  and  the  criticisms,  commendations  and  sug- 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  213 

gestions  offered  are  the  product  of  the  several  mutually  support- 
ing forms  of  knowledge  that  were  contributed. 

The  Secondary  School  System  as  a  Whole. 

An  investigator  of  the  Grand  Rapids  public  secondary  school 
system  finds,  taking-  the  system  as  a  whole,  much  indeed  to 
commend  and  extol.  It  is  perfectly  obvious  to  him  that  the  citi- 
zens of  the  town  have  taken  a  keen  interest  in  public  education; 
that  they  have  supported,  and  arc  supporting-,  the  public  schools 
in  a  generous  and  liberal  manner ;  that  they  believe  in  school 
progrcssiveness,  tempered  by  moderate  conservatism ;  that  they 
wish  for  their  children  the  best  schooling  that  twentieth  century 
thought  can  provide  and  that  a  reasonable  financial  expenditure 
can  furnish ;  that  they  welcome  an  expansion  and  an  extension  of 
school  work,  provided  only  it  be  work  that  promises  suitable 
returns  for  the  investment ;  that  they  encourage  the  aspirations 
of  their  children  for  high  intellectual,  moral,  and  social  attain- 
ments; that  they  are  in  favor  of  reasonably  exacting  academic 
and  professional  standards  for  their  teachers ;  that  they  have  put 
in  charge  of  the  school  work  men  and  women  in  whom  they  have, 
and  rightly  can  have,  confidence;  and  that  they  are^  eager  and 
willing  to  co-operate  with  the  officials  of  the  school  in  bringing 
about  their  educational  desires.  This  certainly  is  a  state  of  pub- 
lic interest  and  public  responsiveness  that  is  gratifying.  More- 
over, to  a  very  large  degree,  much  of  the  school  organization  and 
administration  in  which  they  take  pride  is  fully  worthy  of  their 
boasts  and  loyalty. 

Three  separate  high-school  buildings  and  one  separate  junior 
high-school  building  operating  in  a  city  the  size  of  Grand  Rapids 
are  more  than  will  ordinarily  be  found.  Moreover,  these  schools 
are,  in  general,  well  distributed  geographically  and  well  situated 
topographically.  The  Union  school  provides  convenient  and  ap- 
propriate high-school  facilities  for  the  residents  of  the  west  side ; 
the  new  South  school  performs  a  like  service  for  the  citizens  of 
that  section ;  the  Central  High  and  the  Junior  High  schools 
readily  accommodate  the  youths  of  the  older  and  more  thickly 
settled  portions  of  the  city. 

It  may  possibly  be  somewhat  unfortunate  that  the  Junior 
High  school  building  is  located  where  it  is — particularly  if  it  is 
to  be  used  solely  for  the  purpose  of  a  junior  high  school.  The 
section  in  which  it  stands  borders  closely  on  the  business  dis- 
trict of  the  city,  a  district  that  seems  to  be  encroaching  more 
and  more  each  year  upon  the  adjoining  residential  sections. 
Moreover,  the  residential  portion  that  remains  is  composed  large- 
ly of  the  older  families  whose  children  have,  in  large  numbers,  al- 


214  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

ready  received  their  education  and  have  disappeared  from  the 
scenes  of  their  childhood.  The  constituency,  therefore,  that 
maintains  the  present  school  has  its  geographical  center  consid- 
erably apart  from  the  site  of  the  present  building. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  present  structure  is  admirably  situ- 
ated and  fairly  well  arranged  to  serve  the  entire  business  section 
of  the  city  as  a  trade  school  and  technical  school,  or  a  day  con- 
tinuation school.  Schools  of  this  character  are  manifestly  about 
to  make  articulate  their  demands  for  recognition  in  all  prog- 
gressive  school  systems.  Grand  Rapids,  considering  the  nature 
of  her  industrial  and  business  life,  will  of  necessity  soon  be  forced 
to  listen  to  this  demand,  if  locally  made,  and  to  plan  for  it.  There 
can  be  little  doubt  that  if  proper  school  facilities  were  provided, 
and  proper  arrangements  were  made  with  employers  in  the  vari- 
ous stores,  offices,  shops,  factories,  and  business  houses  of  the. 
city,  scores,  if  not  hundreds,  of  workers  now  employed  therein 
would  take  advantage  of  the  offerings  and  seek  to  improve  not 
only  their  occupational  training  but  their  interests  and  powers 
relating  to  civic,  social,  and  generally  cultural  matters.  By  sup- 
plementing the  day  continuation  school  work  with  instruction  of 
a  similar  character  offered  in  night  classes  (as  at  present)  the 
Junior  High  School  building  can  doubtlessly  be  made  to  become 
the  most  continuously  employed  school  building  of  any  in  the 
city. 

It  is,  therefore,  suggested  that  the  Board  of  Education,  in 
laying  out  its  plans  for  the  further  extension  of  school  work  and 
the  further  construction  of  new  buildings,  take  carefully  into 
consideration  both  the  need  and  desirability  of  providing  some- 
where in  the  city  a  thoroughly  equipped  trade  school  or  technical 
school — for  both  day  and  evening  classes — and  that,  secondly, 
they  weigh  carefully  the  advantages  that  inhere  in  the  thought 
of  converting  the  present  Junior  High  School  building  into  a 
school  of  that  sort. 

In  like  manner  it  seems  probable  that  within  a  relatively 
short  time  additional  junior  high  schools  will  be  needed  in  one 
or  more  sections  of  the  city  that  are  at  present  without  such 
schools.  Doubtless  the  first  new  district  to  be  thus  provided 
will  be  the  north  side,  although,  judging  from  the  numbers  of 
pupils  at  present  enrolled  from  that  territory  in  the  existing  high 
schools,  the  necessity  for  additional  accommodations  is  not 
pressing. 

Grand  Rapids  is  also  to  be  commended  for  the  form  in 
which  it  is  organizing  its  school  system.  The  Board  of  Educa- 
tion and  the  administrative  school  officers  have,  apparently,  de- 
finitely committed  themselves  to  the  principle  of  the  six-year 
elementary  school  and  the  six-year  high  school,  with  a  junior 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  215 

college  to  supplement  the  work  at  the  top.  In  adopting  this 
plan  of  organization  the  city  has  put  itself  in  the  van  of  educa- 
tional thought  and  practice.  There  is  no  longer  any  question  as  to 
the  trend  of  public  school  organization  in  this  country.  The  con- 
clusions of  physiology,  psychology  and  sociology  in  respect  to  the 
need  for  the  adaptation  of  our  schools  to  the  changing  stages  of 
physical,  mental  and  social  development  of  children  and  youths 
are  clear  and  certain.  The  theory  of  individual  differences  of 
powers  and  aptitudes  is  today  fully  accepted.  The  correlative 
theory  of  the  need  of  a  differentiation  of  the  subject-matter  to 
be  studied  and  of  the  method  of  instruction  to  be  employed  in 
dealing  with  the  several  stages  of  human  development  is  like- 
wise rapidly  becoming  an  accepted  pedagogical  doctrine. 

And  yet,  while  Grand  Rapids  has  definitely  subscribed  to 
the  more  logical,  more  physiological,  more  truly  democratic  form 
of  school  organization  included  in  the  six-six  plan  of  grade  group- 
ings, she  has  stopped  considerably  short  of  what  rightfully  might 
be  expected  of  her.  The  six-year  high  school  as  it  is  in  operation 
in  the  city  today  is  not  fully  such  a  school — if  by  the  expression 
is  meant  (as  many  persons  think  is  meant)  'not  only  a  change  in 
the  form  of  school  organization,  but  also  a  pretty  complete  modi- 
fication of  the  subject-matter  to  be  taught,  the  methods  of  in 
str action  used,  the  mode  of  administration  employed  and  the 
spirit  of  control  and  direction  that  dominate.  While  the  steps 
that  have  been  taken  are  all  in  the  forward  direction,  the  ad- 
vance has  not  as  yet  carried  the  schools  so  far  toward  the  idea  of 
the  modern  school  as  the  needs  of  an  industrial  growing  city 
like  Grand  Rapids  demand  or  the  advice  of  educational  experts 
recommends.  The  most  glaring  faults  of  omission  have  to  do 
with  the  curriculum  and  its  administration.  While  something  in- 
deed, has  been  done  to  reorganize  the  work  of  instruction,  there 
is  surely  need  for  a  more  thorough  overhauling  of  the  entire 
program  of  studies — particularly  of  the  program  for  the  seventh, 
eighth  and  ninth  grades.  The  detailed  analysis  of  the  situation 
within  these  grades  is  reserved  for  a  later  section  of  this  report. 
What,  in  general,  Grand  Rapids  needs  to  do,  however,  to  improve 
her  school  system  is  to  complete  and  perfect  the  organization 
and  forms  of  administration  she  has  so  happily  already,  in  part, 
begun. 

School  administration  is  a  dynamic  force,  not  a  static  one. 
Forms  and  processes  that  serve  one  generation  well,  or  that  fit 
the  conditions  of  one  type  of  schools  or  one  class  of  pupils,  or 
that  meet  the  needs  of  a  particular  set  of  concrete  problems  do 
not  always  constitute  the  wisest  and  most  effective  agencies  for 
dealing  with  school  questions  arising  out  of  situations  that  vary 


216  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

in  respect  to  time  and  place  and  human  factors.  Indeed,  quite 
the  contrary  is  usually  true.  In  consequence  no  absolutely  set 
and  uniform  rules  of  procedure  should  operate  over  a  large  and 
complete  school  system  like  that  of  Grand  Rapids.  Instead,  free 
opportunity  should  be  given  not  alone  for  the  adaptation  of  gen- 
eral principles  to  concrete  situations  as  they  arise  and  as  the  offi- 
cers in  charge  may  judge  necessary,  but  a  constant  series  of  edu- 
cational and  administrative  experiments  should  be  authorized 
and  a  constant  checking  over  of.  the  meritorious  and  the  disadvan- 
tageous results  should  take  place.  Such  experimentation  may  be 
undertaken  co-operatively  by  the  several  principals,  or  by  the 
principal  and  the  corps  of  teachers  within  a  single  building,  or 
by  individuals  within  the  several  schools.  The  only  restraining 
force  that  should  operate  in  any  given  case  should  be  that  of 
balanced  reason.  Once  an  individual  has  been  selected  to  take 
charge  of  a  given  piece  of  work  his  powers  of  free  execution 
should  be  commensurate  with  his  responsibility.  Happily,  this 
principle  is  one  that  is  generally  accepted  by  the  officers  of  the 
school  system  in  Grand  Rapids,  and  is  in  pretty  complete  opera- 
tion at  present. 

Few  cities,  it  would  seem,  are  more  fortunately  circum- 
stanced than  Grand  Rapids  to  carry  on  a  valuable  series  of  ex- 
periments respecting  the  best  form  in  which  to  organize  the  work 
of  secondary  education,  to  test  practices  in  the  light  of  results, 
and  to  select  finally  a  plan  that  will  give  the  maximum  points 
of  advantage  with  the  minimum  points  of  disadvantage.  Inci- 
dentally, the  city  has  an  opportunity  to  make  real  history  for 
herself  and  to  contribute  notably  to  the  cause  of  educational 
administration  in  general. 

The  point  about  which  revolves  today  a  vast  amount  of  un- 
proven  and  diametrically  opposed  theory  of  educational  organi- 
zation is  that  which  concerns  the  wisest  external  arrangement  to 
be  employed  in  fashioning  the  school  work.  The  physically  arti- 
culated six-six  plan,  the  segregated  six-six  plan,  the  segregated 
six-three-three  plan  all  have  their  pronounced  advocates.  No  one, 
however,  positively  knows  which  type  of  organization  will  yield 
the  best  returns.  Grand  Rapids,  therefore,  with  one  school  that 
houses  all  grades  from  one  to  twelve,  one  that  includes  (or  will 
include  when  fully  developed)  the  upper  six  grades  only,  one  that 
segregates  the  seventh,  eighth  and  ninth  grades  by  themselves, 
and  one  that  perpetuates,  temporarily  and  in  part,  the  old  four- 
year  high-school  arrangement,  but  which  is  designed  ultimately 
to  house  only  the  upper  grades  of  the  high  school — the  tenth, 
eleventh  and  twelfth  grades,  with  possibly  the  junior  college 
grades — with  a  situation  of  this  kind  actually  existing  and  with 
each  school  serving  its  constituency  reasonably  well,  it  would 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  217 

seem  to  be  the  part  of  wisdom  and  of  progressiveness  to  encour- 
age each  principal,  in  co-operation  with  the  superintendent  and 
the  board  of  principals,  to  exercise  wide  discretionary  powers 
in  the  external  organization  and  conduct  of  his  building.  Pre- 
cisely what  forms  of  experimentation  such  freedom  should  take  in 
each  building  will  be  discussed  later. 

Grand  Rapids  may  well  feel  proud  of  the  two  new  high- 
school  buildings  she  possesses — the  Central  High  and  the  South 
High.  They  -both  measure  up  well  to  the  standards  of  modern 
school  buildings.  The  new  addition  to  the  Union  High  is  also 
fully  in  keeping  with  the  ideals  of  modern  school  architecture. 
As  soon  as  the  old  central  portion  of  this  school  is  demolished  and 
the  sections  planned  to  contain  the  auditorium,  gymnasium,  of- 
fices and  addtional  class  rooms  are  completed,  this  building  will 
be  not  one  whit  inferior  to  any  of  the  other  buildings.  It  is  a 
wise  move  that  the  Board  has  made  to  complete  this  building 
at  a  very  early  date.  It  is  exceptionally  wise  that  land  lying  with- 
in close  proximity  to  the  school  has  already  been  purchased  and 
is  to  be  equipped  for  an  athletic  field. 

The  Junior  High  School  building  is  the  oldest  and  least 
hygienic  and  commodious  of  any  in  the  city.  Here  material 
changes  are  needed  and  needed  badly.  Not  only  is  the  building 
extremely  overcrowded,  but  under  the  present  conditions,  much 
of  the  work  is  seriously  handicapped.  The  school  architect 
should  be  asked  to  investigate  the  entire  situation  at  once,  with 
a  view  to  relieving  such  over-crowded  conditions  as  can  be  re- 
lieved, and  with  the  view  further  of  improving  unhygienic  con- 
ditions wherever  possible. 

There  is  no  question  that  some  of  the  urgent  needs  for 
this  building  are  a  gymnasium,  an  auditorium,  enlarged  facilities 
for  manual  training  and  domestic  science  work,  a  conservatory 
and  museum  suited  to  the  work  of  nature  study  and  elementary 
science,  music  rooms,  rest  rooms  for  both  teachers  and  pupils, 
and  a  magazine  and  reading  room.  The  Board  has  provided 
amply  for  all  these  essential  school  aids  in  the  several  other  build- 
ings. Equity  would  seem  to  call  for  them  here  also.  It  is,  more- 
over, a  serious  question  whether  boys  and  girls  of  the  junior  high- 
school  age  do  not  require  these  agencies  for  their  best  develop- 
ment even  more  than  do  the  youths  of  an  older  age.  The  period 
of  greatest  school  mortality  lies  between  the  fifth  and  the  ninth 
grades.  No  doubt  many  causes  enter  into  the  explanation  of  this 
fact,  but  among  these  surely  is  the  too  common  one  of  adminis- 
trative indifference  to  the  peculiar  interests  and  needs  of  late  pre- 
adolescence.  The  kindergartners  and  primary  grade  pupils  be- 
low, and  the  high-school  pupils  above,  have  their  especial  inter- 


218  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

ests  considered  and  ministered  unto,  but  too  frequently  the  in- 
termediate school  pupil  is  an  institutional  outcast — anything  that 
nobody  else  wishes  is  thought  good  enough  for  him.  His  case 
is  not  infrequently  disposed  of  on  the  theory  that  he  is  not  sensi- 
tive to  the  niceties  of  physical,  social,  aesthetic,  and  educational 
forms  and  that  therefore  he  does  not  resent  the  real,  though  co- 
vert, slight  that  is  accorded  his  nature. 

No  greater  mistake  can  be  made  in  dealing  with  pre-adoles- 
cence.  Precisely  this  sort  of  belief  has  driven  America  to  the  pre- 
sent demand  for  a  reorganization  of  our  school  system  on  some 
other  basis  than  the  old  stereotyped,  wasteful,  discouraging 
system  of  tradition.  While  Grand  Rapids,  as  already  has  been 
said,  has  advanced  far  on  the  road  of  educational  progress,  she 
still  has  provided  less  generously  for  the  youths  of  junior  high- 
school  age- — and  especially  for  the  abnormal  or  the  peculiarly 
individualistic  youths  of  that  age — than  for  any  other  class  of 
secondary  school  pupils. 

During  the  present  semester  (February -June  1916)  for  ex- 
ample, twenty-five  boys  from  the  Junior  High  School  are  required 
to  go  each  day  to  the  Central  building  in  order  to  secure  the  man- 
ual training  work  that  is  desired  and  is  prescribed.  The  loss  in 
time  going  and  coming  is  something,  but  much  more  serious  is 
the  interference  such  absences  make  with  the  smooth  adjustment 
of  the  class  schedules  in  the  Junior  High  School  the  hour  pre- 
ceeding  and  the  hour  following  the  class  exercise  at  the  Central 
building.  Moreover,  the  real  necessity  for  these  interruptions 
does  not  exist.  There  is  ample  room  on  the  site  of  the  present 
Junior  High  school  for  an  addition  to  the  manual  training  shops. 
Indeed,  such  an  addition  was  contemplated  and  expressly  provid- 
ed for  in  the  original  plan  of  the  Board  of  .Education.  Why  delay 
in  carrying  out  the  original  scheme  is  continued  is  not  apparent. 

In  like  manner  the  Junior  High  School  is  handicapped  for 
want  of  an  auditorium  that  will  accommodate  the  entire  school — 
or  even  a  fair  portion  of  it — in  assembly  exercises,  school  enter- 
tainments, and  other  school  gatherings.  The  auditorium  period 
is  recognized  by  all  educators  as  possessing  opportunities  for 
establishing  social  ideals,  moral  impressions,  and  an  esprit  de 
corps  that  no  other  form  of  school  work  can  provide.  The  class- 
room influences  not  infrequently  soon  pass  into  the  rearm  of  un- 
traced  oblivion.  Not  so,  however,  the  lessons  vividly  stamped 
on  youthful  souls  in  the  gatherings  of  the  entire  school — gath- 
erings in  which  participation  by  pupils  is  encouraged,  and  mes- 
sages from  men  and  by  agencies  outside  the  regular  school  sys- 
tem are  offered.  The  daily  auditorium  lesson  is  one  of  the  much 
vaunted  features  of  the  Gary  plan,  and  the  values  claimed  for  it 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  219 

are  not  overstated,  provided  the  period  be  properly  utilized  and 
directed.  If  the  school  is  truly  to  serve  as  the  socializing  agency 
of  democracy,  then  indeed  must  adequate  provision  be  made  for 
the  free  and  wholesome  commingling  of  pupils  in  natural  ways, 
and  for  the  development  among  them  of  common  social  ideals, 
attitudes,  and  modes  of  procedure.  Through  the  instrumentality 
of  the  stereopticon,  the  moving-picture,  the  victrola  and  the 
various  agencies  the  pupils  themselves  develop  within  the  school, 
invaluable  supplementary  educational  training  is  secured.  The 
Board  of  Education  can  do  nothing  more  serviceable  than  to 
build  and  equip  an  addition  to  the  present  building  expressly  for 
auditorium  purposes. 

The  third  deficiency  in  respect  to  the  Junior  High  School 
building  is  the  wholly  inadequate — not  to  say,  impossible — facil- 
ities provided  for  physical  training,  gymnastic  work,  and  physical 
recreation.  The  room  at  present  used  for  physical  education  is 
small,  ill-ventilated,  and  poorly  adapted  for  such  purposes.  De- 
spite these  facts  one  has  only  to  observe  the  work  of  this  depart- 
ment to  be  convinced  of  the  eagerness  with  which  all  classes  of 
students  turn  towards  it  and  of  the  physical  and  moral  benefits  to 
be  derived  therefrom.  The  state  law,  moreover,  makes  it  obliga- 
tory on  every  city  of  10,000  inhabitants  to  provide  appropriate 
physical  training  for  all  its  pupils.  Grand  Rapids  could  not,  there- 
fore, if  it  would,  legally  neglect  this  side  of  the  school  work — and 
it  certainly  does  not  want  to  do  so.  Improved  facilities,  however, 
are  almost  imperative.  It  would,  moreover,  be  a  relatively  simple 
matter  to  add  to  the  present  building  a  section  that  should  give 
both  the  proper  arrangement  for  auditorium  exercises  and  for 
gymnastic  work  and  physical  training,  together  with  the  indis- 
pensable bathing  facilities  which  the  twentieth  century  demands 
— -lockers,  showers,  tubs,  and  swimming  pools.  An  arrangement 
copied,  for  example,  somewhat  after  the  plan  employed  at  the 
South  High  School  would  be  feasible  and  practicable. 

An  alternative  possibility  (though  of  much  less  merit)  in 
improving  the  material  situation  in  this  school  and  in  relieving 
over-crowded  conditions,  is  that  of  removing  from  the  building 
all  existing  general  administrative  school  offices,  the  remodelling 
of  the  rooms  thus  vacated,  and  the  rearrangement  of  doors,  win- 
dows and  hallways  leading  thereto.  This  plan,  however,  recom- 
mends itself  solely  on  the  score  of  immediate  economy.  To  fol- 
low it  would  produce  a  make-shift  of  an  improvement  at  best. 
Much  wiser,  seemingly,  is  the  idea  of  doing  the  job  correctly 
when  it  is  done,  and  having  no  regrets.  Continuous  repairing 
is  sometimes  false  economy. 

The  matter  of  bettering  the   lighting  facilities   is   a  more 


220  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

difficult  one  to  handle.  No  doubt,  however,  a  decided  improve- 
ment in  this  respect  can  be  suggested  by  the  school  architect, 
provided  he  is  given  "free  hand  so  to  do." 

The  material  changes  in  the  Junior  High  School  building  are 
needed  at  present  to  meet  the  wants  of  the  Junior  High  School 
pupils.  If,  moreover,  the  Board  shall  act  upon  the  suggestion 
already  made,  namely,  ultimately  to  convert  the  entire  building 
into  a  trade  school  catering  to  the  demands  of  industry  and  com- 
merce and  providing  an  extensive  vocational  education  for  the 
growing  numbers  of  adolescents  and  adults  who  are  looking  to 
the  public  schools  to  furnish  them  the  kind  of  training  they 
find  most  necessary  and  beneficial  to  them,  then  an  even  more 
forceful  reason  is  at  hand  for  enlarging  the  material  facilities  and 
the  scope  of  the  school  work  to  be  included  in  this  building. 

In  considering,  therefore,  the  accommodations  for  which  the 
several  schools  of  the  city  must  make  provision,  the  following 
items  taken  from  the  enrollment  figures  for  the  last  six  years  are 
illuminating: 

TABLE  XXXII 
Enrollment   in   Grand   Rapids   Schools— 1910-1915. 


Year 
1910        

Enrollment  in 
Grammer  Grades 
5013 

Enrollment  in 
High  Schools 
1813 

1911 

5099 

1844 

1912    
1913 

5206 
5535 

1896 
1979 

1914    

5763 

2107 

1915    .. 

2325 

In  view  of  the  facts  here  presented — facts  which  show  con- 
clusively that  the  enrollment  in  the  grammar  and  high  schools  is 
constantly  increasing  and  that  the  citizens  are  apparently  both 
willing  and  desirous  of  providing  enlarged  and  enriched  facilities 
for  their  young  people,  and  in  view  of  the  further  fact  that  a  re- 
cently enacted  state  law  has  extended  the  age  of  compulsory  edu- 
cation to  sixteen  and  has  limited  the  hours  of  labor  and  the  kinds 
of  employment  in  which  youths  may  be  legally  engaged  at  any 
time — in  view  of  these  facts  it  seems  reasonable  to  expect  that 
larger  and  larger  numbers  of  young  people  will  be  retained  in  the 
schools  each  succeeding  year  in  the  future.  Coupled  with  these 
conditions  is  the  almost  universal  agitation  for  a  more  complete, 
systematic  education  for  all  members  of  society  irrespective  of 
age,  interest  and  life  vocation — an  agitation  which  seems  destined 
to  augment  greatly  both  the  members  for  whom  schooling  must 
be  provided  and  also  the  variety  of  courses  that  must  be  organiz- 
ed to  meet  their  needs. 

Such  conditions  will  surely  make  it  imperative  that  addi- 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  221 

tional  school  buildings,  increased  school  equipment,  varied  and 
enriched  programs  of  study  and  curricula  (particularly  on  the 
side  of  the  practical  or  quasi-vocational  subjects),  and  an  en- 
larged teaching  staff  shall  be  planned  for  the  future — even  the  im- 
mediate future — and  that  steps  shall  be  taken  so  to  distribute  the 
inevitable  augmentation  of  the  school  budget,  incident  to  the  ex- 
pansion and  development  of  the  school  system,  so  that  it  shall 
not  bear  with  undue  weight  upon  the  taxpayers  at  any  one  period 
of  time.  It  seems,  therefore,  highly  desirable  that  the  Board  of 
Education  should  adopt  a  constructive,  far-sighted  building  poli- 
cy at  once, — a  policy  that  shall  provide  immediately  for  such 
pressing  needs  as  are  clearly  and  distinctly  apparent  and  for  such 
expenditures  each  year  in  the  future  as  exigencies  may  require 
and  equity  permit. 

The  policy  of  allowing  each  principal  considerable  freedom 
in  working  out  with  his  corps  of  teachers  the  program  of  reci- 
tations for  his  school  is  in  accordance  with  common  practice 
elsewhere.  The  freedom  to  determine  the  length  of  the  recita- 
tion period,  and  incidentally  the  length  of  the  school  day,  is 
less  usual,  but  can  be  defended  in  logic.  At  the  Union  School 
recitation  periods  are  forty-seven  minutes  in  length ;  at  the  Junior 
High  they  are  fifty  minutes  (having  been  reduced  from  sixty 
minutes  this  semester)  ;  and  at  the  Central  High  and  the  South 
High  all  periods — recitation,  laboratory  and  shop — are  sixty  min- 
utes long.  In  all  these  schools,  except  the  Union  high,  a  portion 
of  each  period  devoted  to  academic  subjects  is  nominally  given 
over  to  supervised  or  directed  study  of  the  newly  assigned  les- 
son. Theoretically  this  arrangement  has  the  sanction  of  twen- 
tieth century  pedagogy;  actully  it  is  questionable  whether  the 
arrangement  is  wisest.  The  sixty-minute  class  period  certainly 
lends  itself  to  easy  administrative  manipulation.  Double  periods 
arranged  only  for  laboratory  work  once  or  twice  per  week,  for 
shop  work,  for  much  of  the  commercial  work  and  work  in  art 
are  the  worry  of  the  program  maker.  Where  the  practice  pre- 
vails it  is  almost  impossible  to  devise  class  schedules  for  all  pu- 
pils and  to  make  them  workable  without  inconvenience  and  an- 
noyance. Moreover,  where  double  periods  are  in  effect  there  not 
infrequently  is  considerable  dawdling  and  sheer  waste  of  time 
on  the  part  of  many  pupils,  particularly  at  the  beginning  and  end 
of  the  period.  Where  the  sixty-minute  period  is  in  vogue  pupils 
and  teachers  alike  "speed  up"  and  accomplish  approximately  the 
same  amount  of  work  as  in  the  longer  double  period,  and  do  it 
qualitatively  as  well.  It  is  probable  also  that  the  fatigue  point 
is  not  approximated  nearly  so  often  under  the  hour  system  as 
under  the  double  period  system,  for  the  preventative  of  fatigue  is 


222  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

change.  Certain  it  is  that  wherever  the  single  period  of  sixty 
minutes  was  observed  in  operation  in  Grand  Rapids  in  connection 
with  shop,  laboratory  and  other  practical  work,  naught  but  good 
impressions  were  left  upon  the  observer. 

The  sixty-minute  recitation  study  period  is,  however,  some- 
thing entirely  different  from  the  sixty-minute  period  devoted  to 
manual  manipulation.  Many  European  countries,  it  is  true,  have 
for  years  past  employed  this  unit  for  class  recitations  even  for 
the  lowest  elementary  school  grades,  and  have  seemed  to  be 
thoroughly  satisfied  with  it.  In  general  a  part  of  the  hour  is 
given  over  frankly  to  relaxation.  Furthermore  the  European 
school  recitations  is  quite  different  in  character  from  the 
ordinary  one  in  America.  There  teacher  and  pupils  devote 
the  hour,  quite  generally,  to  a  co-operative  development  of  the 
topic  under  consideration.  Text-books  are  few.  Oral  exposi- 
tion by  the  teacher  and  concerted  thinking  by  both  teachers  and 
pupils  are  the  rule.  There  is,  in  consequence,  little  need  for  in- 
dependent study  when  the  class  period  is  over.  The  entire  period 
is  in  itself  a  study  period — only  such  additional  effort  on  the  part 
of  the  pupils  being  put  forth  as  will  organize,  clarify,  and  inten- 
sify the  impressions  already  made.  In  Europe  the  teachers  are 
expected  to  teach,  not  hear  classes  recite. 

Some  teachers  in  the  Grand  Rapids  high  schools  are  capable 
of  using  the  sixty-minute  class  periods  in  the  profitable  European 
manner,  and  do  so.  Most  of  them,  however,  do  not  so  employ  it, 
and  it  is  doubtful  if  all  could  profitably  do  so,  if  given  a  free 
hand.  Nevertheless,  the  so-called  supervised  study  periods  of  ten 
or  fifteen  minutes  as  now  employed  in  Grand  Rapids  do  not  in 
many  instances  seem  to  be  justifying  themselves.  In  only  one  in- 
stance in  visiting  the  several  schools  was  there  observed  any  pre- 
tence at  actual  supervision  of  study.  Moreover,  teachers  frank- 
ly acknowledged  that  they  did  not  attempt  to  do  so  except  oc- 
casionally. When  the  formal  recitation  period  was  past,  pupils 
did,  of  course,  open  their  books,  and  went  through  the  form  of 
studying  the  next  day's  assignment.  In  most  instances,  however, 
it  was  a  perfunctory  performance,  and  must  necessarily  have 
been  so,  as  the  limit  of  time  did  not  permit  much  more  than  a  be- 
ginning of  effort.  In  the  meantime,  teachers  busied  themselves 
at  their  desks,  looked  over  papers,  perused  the  next  period's  les- 
son, or  attended  to  routine  matters.  The  only  form  of  supervi- 
sion that  was  carried  on  was  to  keep  order,  and  some  did  not 
succeed  well  at  that.  Moreover,  the  suspicion  was  constantly 
arising  in  the  mind  of  the  observer  that  pupils  who  did  devote 
themselves  seriously  to  the  task  were  frequently  doing  so  on  the 
supposition  that  the  few  minutes  there  given  to  the  work  would 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  223 

be  all  that  would  be  necessary  and  all  that  would  be  demanded 
by  the  teacher.  Hence,  instead  of  encouraging  concentration 
of  effort  for  protracted  intervals  and  a  fair  mastery  of  the  lesson 
assignment,  pupils  were  certainly  placed  in  danger  of  developing 
habits  of  hurried,  superficial,  slip-shod  modes  of  study. 

The  criticisms  directed  to  supervised  study  as  it  seemingly 
is  erroneously  styled  and  carried  on  in  Grand  Rapids,  do  not, 
however,  condemn  the  entire  scheme  of  sixty-minute  periods. 
The  administrative  advantages  alone  will  make  its  retention  de- 
sirable. But  a  modification  of  the  manner  of  using  the  hour 
surely  is  needed.  The  formal  processes  of  learning  or  of  study- 
ing are  not  so  numerous  nor  so  different  among  the  several 
subjects  or  the  several  phases  of  the  same  subject  as  to  make 
necessary  the  constant  personal  help  of  teachers  for  each  individ- 
ual. Once  the  pupil  has  learned  to  concentrate,  to  analyze  the 
problem  set  before  him,  to  apply  his  past  knowledge  to  new  situ- 
ations, little  more  is  needed  or  desirable  on  the  part  of  the  teacher 
than  to  allow  him  to  exercise  his  powers.  The  art  of  economical 
effective  study  is  a  rare  one  even  for  adults,  but  the  art  of  teach- 
ing others  how  best  to  study  each  particular  lesson  is  a  still 
more  uncommon  one.  The  danger  lies  in  suggesting  too  much 
or  too  little,  in  carrying  most  of  the  burden  for  the  pupil  or  in 
carrying  none. 

In  view  of  the  weaknesses  apparent  in  the  administration  of 
the  scheme  as  it  is,  it  seems  wiser  that  the  sixty-minute  class  per- 
iod be  stripped  of  its  positive  requirements  of  supervised  study 
each  hour  for  a  stated  definite  number  of  minutes  and  that  in 
lieu  thereof  teachers  be  given  freedom  to  employ  the  entire 
period  for  common  class  activities.  The  two  most  serious  faults 
to  be  found  among  American  teachers — faults  observable  not  in- 
frequently in  Grand  Rapids — are  the  failure  to  knit  the  entire 
mass  of  the  day's  thought  material  into  a  compact  unity  before 
dismissing  it  from  mind,  and,  second,  the  failure  to  make  the  new- 
lesson  assignment  clear,  definite,  and  truly  vital.  Classroom  reci- 
tations and  discussions  are  necessarily  fragmentary,  disjointed 
and  unsystematized.  It  is,  however,  the  chief  function  of  the 
teacher  to  bring  order  and  permanency  of  form  out  of  the  chaos 
of  impressions,  ideas,  and  responses.  In  the  ideal  recitation 
period  each  pupil  contributes  his  quota  of  knowledge,  sugges- 
tion, interpretation,  opinion,  and  thought,  and  shares  with  his 
fellows  and  with  the  teacher  the  responsibility  of  developing  the 
topic  that  is  before  them — of  clarifying  the  problem  that  is  in- 
volved and  of  advancing  it  steadily  to  the  point  of  solution.  It 
is  the  business  of  the  teacher  not  only  to  guide  and  direct  the 
class  activities,  but  also  to  supplement,  illustrate,  expound,  and, 


224  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

above  all  else,  to  unify.    Hence  the  need  for  systematic  summar- 
izing of  accomplishments  in  each  class  period  is  apparent. 

In  like  manner,  ample  time  should  be  taken  for  assigning 
the  new  lesson.  How  many  minutes  should  be  devoted  to  this 
part  of  the  work  the  particular  circumstances  of  the  hour  must 
determine.  Rarely,  however,  is  enough  time  or  attention  given 
to  the  task.  Moreover,  it  is  certain  that  the  greater  the  thought 
and  care  that  are  employed  in  this  manner,  the  less  labored  and 
more  satisfactory  will  be  the  recitation  work  which  follows  later. 
Vague,  generalized,  formal  assignments  of  lessons  stamp  the 
teacher  as  inefficient  more  positively,  perhaps,  than  any  other 
one  test  of  merit.  Yet  the  fault  is  fairly  common  among  all 
teachers.  Instead  of  imitating  the  successful  business  man  who 
advertises  his  goods,  makes  his  show  windows  attractive,  and 
draws  custom  by  the  sheer  force  of  stimulated  curiosity,  teachers 
are  prone  to  let  the  material  for  study  lie  embedded  in  dull  text- 
books, unmarked  by  any  distinguishing  placard,  and  undiscover- 
able  except  as  blind  chance  leads  the  pupil  to  begin  scratching 
the  surface  about  it.  In  consequence  of  this  unpedagogical  mode 
of  procedure  pupils  not  infrequently  come  away  from  classes  with 
little  notion  of  what  the  real  problem  is  which  is  set  them,  where- 
in lie  the  most  significant  aspects  of  it,  what  difficulties  of  attack 
beset  them,  and  how  they  should  most  effectively  proceed  to 
master  the  work.  The  result  is  unintelligent  effort,  waste  of  time, 
and  moral  discouragement  on  the  part  of  many  pupils.  A  further 
result  is  failure  to  comprehend  the  thought  in  class  the  following 
day,  lack  of  responsiveness,  irritation  with  the  teacher,  growing 
dislike  for,  and  indifference  to,  school  work  in  general,  and  finally 
withdrawal  from  further  attempts  at  any  systematic  education. 
It  is  certain  that  pupils  frequently  have  failed  to  meet  the  stand- 
ards because  they  have  not  known  clearly  what  was  expected  of 
them,  nor  how  to  proceed  to  the  undertaking.  No  pattern  was 
set  before  them,  no  device  for  whetting  the  interest  was  em- 
ployed with  them,  no  motive  for  exerting  their  best  efforts  was 
instilled  into  them.  They  merely  failed  in  their  tasks  because 
others  who  were  supposed  to  know  what  was  best  to  do  had 
failed  in  their  tasks. 

The  above  reflections  are  given  not  with  the  intent  of  con- 
demning any  teacher  in  the  Grand  Rapids  school  system,  but  to 
emphasize  the  great  need  of  stressing  each  day  both  the  processes 
of  unifying  and  of  summarizing  what  already  has  been  studied 
and  discussed  in  class  and  the  necessity  of  opening  vistas  through 
the  mass  of  new  material  presented  and  of  motivizing  the  react- 
ions that  are  desired.  Many  teachers  do  these  two  things  even  un- 
der the  present  organization  of  the  school  work,  but  it  seems  rea- 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  225 

sonable  to  suppose  that,  if  the  brief  study  periods  attached  to  each 
recitation  hour  were  eliminated  or  improved,  and  if  sympathetic 
supervision  of  the  teachers  is  given  (as  at  present)  by  principals 
and  heads  of  departments,  that  a  more  uniform  and  satisfactory 
observance  of  these  pedagogical  practices  would  result.  In  place, 
then,  of  the  brief,  broken  and,  for  the  most  part,  unsuperv/aedf  (i.e. 
unassisted)  study  periods  following  each  recitation,  two  or  three 
such  periods  of  full  60  minutes  each  may  well  be  substituted  in 
the  schedule  of  work  for  each  pupil.  It  surely  would  be  more  econ- 
omical to  employ  a  study-hall  teacher  who  can  simultaneously 
take  charge  of  two  hundred  pupils,  if  need  be,  than  for  each  teach- 
er in  the  system  to  devote  one-fourth  of  her  time  to  the  task,* 
particularly  when  the  additional  time  may  be  profitably  used  for 
class  teaching.  Moreover,  unless  the  several  fifteen-minute  study 
periods  that  arc  at  present  provided  can  readily  be  increased  to 
double  or  triple  their  length  by  means  of  the  double  recitation 
period  arrangement  for  all  classes,  better  results,  academically 
considered,  can  surely  be  expected  by  making  the  change. 

The  sixty-minute  class  periods  and  the  general  organization 
and  administration  of  the  several  high  schools  resulting  there- 
from are  also  making  for  a  desirable  modification  in  the  length 
of  the  school  day.  If  the  ideal  be  accepted  that  the  public  schools 
shall,  as  far  as  possible,  not  only  prepare  pupils  for  the  conven- 
tionalities, relationships  and  activities,  of  the  business  and  social 
life  of  the  times,  but  shall  also  be  so  organized  that  they  epi- 
tomize the  world  of  adult  life,  then  it  follows  that  the  habits 
of  thought  and  of  action  demanded  by  the  world  of  affairs  shall 
be  implanted  and  developed  in  the  institution  selected  by  society 
for  that  purpose,  namely  the  school.  With  business  and  indus- 
try rapidly  being  organized  on  the  basis  of  an  eight-hour  laboring 
day,  it  surely  seems  anachronous  to  organize  the  school  work 
on  the  basis  of  a  much  shorter  working  day.  Not  that  any  teach- 
er nor  any  pupil  should  be  expected  to  devote  the  entire  eight 
hours  to  exacting,  uninterrupted,  intellectual  application.  Pre- 
cisely at  this  point  lies  the  danger  of  the  proposed  change,  and 
it  should  be  frankly  recognized  and  avoided.  The  drain  upon  the 
physical  and  mental  energy  of  a  truly  live  enthusiastic  teacher  is 
unappreciated  by  any  save  those  who  have  experienced  the  work. 
Five  hours  in  the  aggregate  should  surely  constitute  the  maxi- 
mum daily  assignment  for  any  person,  two  hours  of  shop,  labora- 
tory and  supervising  activities  being  considered  the  equivalent 
to  one  hour  of  purely  classroom  work. 

In  like  manner,  pupils  who  carry  five  subjects  requiring  ex- 
tensive study  and  preparation  outside  the  class  period  should  be 
forbidden  to  elect  additional  work  of  a  similar  character.  But 


226  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

by  arranging  and  administering  the  courses  in  physical  training, 
art,  music,  and  the  industrial  and  commercial  subjects  so  as  to 
bring  change  and  variety  into  the  daily  program,  by  distributing 
the  periods  of  recitation,  study,  recreation,  assembly  meetings 
and  manual  activities,  for  both  teachers  and  pupils,  so  that  the 
fatigue  point  is  not  reached  in  any  type  of  work,  an  eight-hour 
school  day  can  not  only  be  made  possible  but  feasible  and  de- 
sirable. The  officials  of  the  school  are  earnestly  advised  to  con- 
sider the  inauguration  of  the  plan. 

Just  as  a  longer  school  day.  seems  about  to  be  accepted  as  an. 
established  policy  in  educational  administration,  so  lilvewise  an 
increase  in  the  length  of  the  school  year  is  being  made  in  many 
cities  and  towns  in  the  land.  Hitherto  the  added  portions  have 
not,  it  is  true,  been  considered  an  integral  part  of  the  regular  aca- 
demic year,  but  have  been  attached  as  auxiliary  or  supplementary 
work  during  the  summer  vacation.  There  is,  however,  much 
supporting  evidence  that  the  hour  is  at  hand  when  the  more  pro- 
gressive school  authorities  are  about  to  organize  all  public  edu- 
cation on  the  basis  of  a  continuous  twelve-month  course.  The 
advantages  of  an  arrangement  of  this  kind  are  so  obvious  that  it 
is  truly  strange  the  plan  has  not  been  adopted  long  before  the  pre- 
sent date.  Just  as  the  proposal  for  a  longer  school  day  does  not 
contemplate  that  teachers,  or  pupils  shall  be  driven  any  more 
urgently  or  be  burdened  with  heavier  tasks  than  at  present,  but 
merely  that  a  greater  degree  of  flexibility  of  administration  shall 
be  secured  for  all  and  that  the  sum  total  of  effort  shall  be  dis- 
tributed throughout  a  longer  period,  so  likewise  the  longer  school 
year  aims  in  no  manner  to  impose  uncompensated  additional 
tasks  upon  either  those  who  are  teaching  or  those  who  are  being 
taught.  In  all  probability,  a  four-term  arrangement  of  twelve 
weeks  per  term  will  appropriately  be  substituted  for  the  pre- 
sent scheme  of  two  semesters  of  eighteen  or  twenty  weeks  each. 
For  those  whose  physical  and  mental  strength  and  interest  make 
it  practicable  and  safe  to  remain  in  school  throughout  the  four 
terms,  opportunity  will  be  provided ;  for  those  who  may  desire  or 
require  a  term's  vacation  annually,  biennially,  or  less  often, 
arrangements  precisely  as  at  present  can  be  made. 

When  consideration  is  given  to  the  facts  that  for  many 
pupils  both  of  secondary  and  elementary  school  age  the  long 
summer  vacation  is  both  unneeded,  if  not  positively  detrimental, 
whether  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  physical  health,  mental 
energy,  or  moral  development ;  that  the  present  school  law  in 
Michigan  absolutely  forbids  any  one  under  the  age  of  fifteen 
engaging  in  lucrative  work  even  during  the  summer  vacation 
period,  and  hence  makes  these  months  loafing  times  for  many  a 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  227 

boy  and  girl ;  that  pupils  who  have  been  forced  to  be  out  of  school 
for  considerable  portions  of  time  during  the  regular  year  and 
who  have  consequently  failed  to  pass  in  some  part  of  their  school 
work,  can  find  no  better  agency  than  the  vacation  school  to  help 
them  gain  standing  again ;  that  ambitious  pupils  of  robust  health 
can  easily  gain  sufficient  additional  credits  in  the  vacation  school 
to  enable  them  to  shorten  their  high-school  course,  often  by  one 
entire  year;  that  pupils  who  find  difficulty  in  carrying  successful- 
ly the  customary  four  units  of  work  per  year,  may,  by  pursuing 
only  three  subjects  simultaneously  in  the  regular  year  and  sup- 
plementing these  by  work  in  the  vacation  school,  still  maintain 
their  full  class  standings ;  that  many  pupils  have,  in  cities  in 
which  vacation  schools  have  been  maintained,  voluntarily  and 
eagerly  enrolled  for  the  work,  partly,  no  doubt,  because  of  the  op- 
portunities provided  therein  for  social,  recreational,  and  athletic 
intercourse,  as  well  as  partly  for  the  sake  of  the  personal  academic 
advantages  to  be  derived  ;  that  many  teachers  welcome  the  chance 
to  increase  their  annual  income  through  engaging  in  vacation 
school  work;  and  that  the  continuous  employment  of  school 
buildings  is  vastly  more  economical  to  the  taxpayers  than  to 
have  them  closed  for  two  or  three  months — consideration  of  these 
facts,  involving,  as  they  do,  numerous  advantages  both  social  and 
personal  for  the  city,  certainly  argue  strongly  for  the  establish- 
ment of  vacation  schools  in  a  city  situated  and  populated  as  is 
Grand  Rapids.  If  it  seems  to  the  Board  of  Education  not  feasi- 
ble at  the  outset  to  make  such  schools  an  integral  part  of  the 
regular  school  year,  the  establishment  of  them  as  supplementary 
undertakings  is  thoroughly  justifiable  and  highly  commendable. 
The  recommendation  is,  therefore,  earnestly  made  that  provision 
for  high-school  work  (as  well  as  elementary-school  work)  be 
made  during  the  summer  vacation  months  for  the  children  and 
youths  of  Grand  Rapids.  The  further  recommendation  is  made 
that  morning  sessions  only  be  held,  thus  preserving  to  pupils  a 
daily  half  holiday  and  freeing  them  from  forced  application  dur- 
ing the  portions  of  the  days  most  apt  to  be  sultry  and  hot.  A 
still  additional  recommendation  is  that  the  recreation  facilities 
of  the  schools — particularly  the  outdoor  facilities  such  as  the 
athletic  fields  and  play  grounds — and  the  shower  baths  be  made 
as  available  to  the  youths  and  adult  residents  of  the  city'  in  vaca- 
tion time  as  during  any  other  period  of  the  year. 

One  further  phase  of  the  general  educational  situation  found 
in  Grand  Rapids  calls  for  brief  comment,  but  comment  by  way 
of  commendation  only  rather  than  by  way  of  critical  suggestions. 
This  pertains  to  the  spirit  of  co-operation  and  the  plan  for  mutual 
constructive  study,  by  the  several  high-school  principals,  of  the 


228  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

entire  administrative  problems  relating  to  secondary  education 
in  the  city.  The  principals'  meetings,  wherein  are  threshed  over 
and  winnowed  the  wheat  and  the  chaff  of  business  incident  to  the 
conduct  of  the  schools,  not  only  largely  explains  the  harmony 
that,  in  general,  characterizes  the  work  of  all  the  administrators, 
but  bespeaks  for  the  future  continued  growth  in  the  efficiency  of 
the  schools,  obtained  (as  it  should  be  obtained)  under  conditions 
varying  with  each  school  and  each  principal,  but  natural  and  ap- 
propriate to  each  separate  organization. 

In  like  manner  the  several  types  of  associations  or  teachers 
organizations  within  the  several  buildings  are  highly  commend- 
able,— the  faculty  meetings,  the  departmental  staff  meetings,  the 
meetings  of  heads  of  departments.  All  these  indicate  that  self- 
analysis  and  self-improvement  (so  far  as  the  school  as  an  institu- 
tion is  concerned)  are  dominating  characteristics  of  the  officers 
and  teachers  throughout  the  secondary  school  system,  and  that 
the  efficiency  and  work  of  the  schools,  as  a  whole,  arc  their  im- 
pelling thoughts. 

Finally  the  type  of  printed  bulletins,  reports,  courses  of  study 
and  other  matter  designed  to  make  significant  to  patrons  and 
pupils  the  purposes,  organization,  and  work  of  the  schools  is  of 
the  best.  Clear,  brief,  intelligible  are  words  that  characterize 
them  all — the  Superintendent's  Annual  Report,  the  bulletins  of 
information,  the  records,  cards  and  similar  material. 

The  Junior  High  Schools. 

Grand  Rapids  is  at  present  in  the  midst  of  a  transition  period 
in  school  organization.  Although  the  work  of  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grades  is  still  provided  in  numerous  ward  or  elementary- 
school  buildings,  much  of  it  has  been  taken  away  from  its  tradi- 
tional settings  and  is  being  organized  under  the  form  and  the 
name  of  secondary  education.  A  portion  of  the  work  thus  trans- 
ferred is  being  combined  with  the  work  of  the  ninth  grade  and  is 
being  offered  in  a  building  separate  and  distinct  from  all  other 
school  work.  This  building  is  styled  the  Junior  High  School. 
The  remainder  of  the  work  thus  removed  from  the  ward  buildings 
is  not  so  completely  segregated  from  the  upper  grades  but  never- 
theless is  sufficiently  isolated  to  warrant  treating  it  as  part  of  the 
junior  high  school.  It  is  therefore  the  purpose  of  this  section 
of  the  survey  to  deal  with  the  work  of  the  seventh,  eighth  and 
ninth  grades  wherever  they  are  apart  from  the  six  lower  grades 
of  the  school  system,  and  the  expression  "junior  high  schools" 
has  been  selected  to  include  all  such  separate  forms  of  organiza- 
tion. 

As  thus  described,  the  junior  high-school  organization   in 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  229 

Grand  Rapids  is  certainly  justifying  itself.  The  fact  that  within 
five  years  the  enrollment  in  one  school — the  segregated  junior 
high  school — has  increased  from  435  pupils  and  a  teaching  force 
of  13  teachers  in  September  1911  to  an  enrollment  of  over  800 
pupils  and  a  teaching  staff  of  33  in  April,  1916,  is  highly  signifi- 
cant. Moreover,  when  the  further  fact  is  noted  that  a  very  large 
per  cent  of  the  increase  in  numbers  since  1911  consists  of  boys, 
the  evidence  is  strong  that  the  junior  high-school  organization  is 
accomplishing  one  of  the  greatest  services  schools  are  designed  to 
accomplish,  namely,  making  education  so  attractive  and  con- 
sciously beneficial  that  youths  will  continue  in  the  schools  for  as 
long  a  period  of  time  as  their  physical  strength,  mental  capacities 
and  economic  resources  will  permit. 

The  statistics  pertaining  to  the  other  two  schools  in  which 
the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  are  organized  as  junior  high-school 
grades  tend  to  bear  out  the  same  conclusions.  The  increased  at- 
tendance at  the  Union  School  and  the  South  School  has  been  al- 
most phenomenal.  At  the  Union  School,  too,  the  number  of  boys 
exceeds  the  number  of  girls  and  has  done  so  for  the  last  few  years. 
Even  in  the  graduating  class  this  fact  holds  true,  there  being  in 
the  graduating  class  of  1916  eighty-one  pupils,  of  whom  forty-five 
are  boys  and  thirty-six  are  girls. 

In  variety  and  range  of  the  subject-matter  offered  in  the 
junior  high-school  grades,  a  notable  advantage  over  the  undif- 
ferentiatecl  elementary-school  work  is  secured.  Here  many 
types  of  interests  are  taken  into  account — academic,  manual 
training,  domestc  science,  artistic  and  commercial.  As  the  schools 
continue  to  develop,  additional  forms  of  work  or  at  least  more 
differentiated  courses  of  the  work  at  present  offered,  will  doubt- 
less be  provided. 

Yet  in  the  face  of  the  facts  that  the  organization  of  the  work 
of  the  junior  high  schools  is  considerably  different  from  the 
traditional  forms  in  which  seventh  and  eighth-grade  work  has 
been  cast,  still  some  strange,  almost  anomalous,  conditions  are 
met  with  here.  The  conviction  is  deep  and  strong  that  while  the 
ideal  of  a  thoroughly  reorganized,  modernized,  psychologized 
school  has  been  sought  in  modifying  the  work  of  the  seventh, 
eighth  and  ninth  grades,  many  of  the  elements  and  characteristics 
that  seem  to  be  absolute  essentials  to  a  completely  formulated 
junior  high  school  are  either  lacking  entirely  or  else  have  been 
put  into  operation  in  a  very  inconspicuous  manner.  A  vision  of 
the  "school  of  tomorrow"  has  undoubtedly  been  had  by  the  au- 
thorities and  administrators  of  public  education  in  Grand  Rapids, 
but  it  is  equally  clear  that  many  old-time  traditional  forms  and 
practices  (some  of  which  are  educationally  questionable,  others 


230  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

of  which  are  educationally  obsolete)  are  holding  tenaciously  in 
administrative  procedure.  What  is  distinctively  needed,  there- 
fore, in  the  junior  high-school  work  in  Grand  Rapids,  is  an  effort 
to  carry  through  to  completion  the  reforms  that  have  already 
been  so  well  begun. 

In  particular,  it  is  very  certain  that  there  is  not  in  operation 
in  the  junior  high  schools  the  degree  of  administrative  flexibility 
that  the  democratic  ideal  of  the  twentieth  century  extols,  nor  that 
the  economic,  industrial  and  social  conditions  of  Grand  Rapids 
require.  Especially  is  this  noticeable  in  reference  to  those  pupils 
who  belong  to  the  group  of  the  intellectually  slow  or  non-literary 
people  and  to  those  whose  educational  careers  are  in  all  probabil- 
ity to  be  terminated  at  a  relatively  early  date.  In  other  words, 
whatever  flexibility  is  provided  operates  to  the  greatest  advan- 
tage of  those  who  need  it  least,  for  those  whose  school  courses 
are  projected  some  distance  into  the  future  and  who  are  definitely 
planning  them,  albeit  there  is  also  some  need  in  Grand  Rapids 
for  more  careful  attention  to  the  interests  of  the  supernormal  pu- 
pils. 

The  dominant  idea  that  underlies  the  reorganization  of  the 
seventh  and  eighth  grades  of  tradition  is  that  of  providing  differ- 
entiated school  work  to  meet  the  peculiar  needs  of  the  differ- 
entiated individuality  that  characterizes  the  age  of  early  adoles- 
escence,  and  not,  as  heretofore,  to  prescribe  the  same  cultural 
elements  for  all  alike.  In  other  words,  the  true  purpose  of  the 
junior  high  school  is  to  furnish  a  testing-place  and  a  testing-time 
wherein  each  boy  and  girl  may  be  led  to  discover  for  himself 
or  herself  the  really  dominant  and  abiding  elements  of  his  or  her 
personal  strength,  and,  once  having  found  these  sources  of  happi- 
ness and  service,  to  be  assisted  in  developing  them  to  the  fullest 
possible  degree  which  time  and  circumstances  will  permit.  The 
junior  high  school,  under  this  view,  is  therefore  a  school  which 
aims  to  serve  the  needs  of  youths  while  they  are  passing  through 
the  transition  stage  of  rather  complete  school  dependence  to 
rather  complete  school  independence.  It  seeks  to  close  the  gap 
that  heretofore  has  yawned  between  the  elementary  school  and 
the  high  school,  and  it  seeks  to  do  this  by  providing  a  three-year 
period  in  which  gradually  to  make  the  adjustments  necessitated 
by  the  changes  in  subject-matter,  methods,  and  administration 
that  are  incident  to  the  change  in  schools.  The  new  ideal  con- 
templates a  rather  complete  modification  of  the  traditional  pro- 
gram of  studies,  the  organization  of  differentiated  curricula, 
some  freedom  of  choice  by  the  pupils  of  the  subject-matter  to  be 
studied,  provision  for  the  differentiation  of  work  among  differ- 
ent class  sections  pursuing  the  same  subject,  comparative  case  of 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  231 

transition  from  one  course  to  another,  much  attention  to  individ- 
ual aptitudes  and  individual  limitations,  and  emphasis  upon  gen- 
eral principles  of  knowledge  concretely  developed  rather  than 
upon  isolated  elementary  facts,  on  the  one  hand,  or  abstract, 
specialized  knowledge-,  on  the  other.  The  junior  high  schools  in 
Grand  Rapids,  as  already  implied,  meet  these  standards  only  in 
part.  The  detailed  analysis  that  follow  seek  to  justify  this  con- 
tention. 

Consider  first  the  subject  of  English.  Most  leaders  of 
thought  dealing  with  the  teaching  of  the  vernacular  language  and 
literature  are  a  unit  in  the  belief  that  detailed  and  exhaustive 
courses  in  formal  English  grammar — particularly  during  the 
early  years  of  school  life — are  a  waste  of  much  precious  time  for 
both  teachers  and  pupils  alike,  discouraging  and  distasteful  re- 
quirements for  many  types  of  youths,  and  to  a  large  degree  fail- 
ures in  effecting  the  ends  for  which  they  are  designed  and  pre- 
sented. The  true  aim  of  the  teaching  of  English  in  the  junior  high 
school,  as  elsewhere  in  the  school  system,  is  to  develop  the  power 
of  clear,  forceful,  facile,  and  pleasing  expression  of  thought,  both 
oral  and  written;  to  stimulate  the  taste  for  good  literature  and 
the  power  to  interpret  it  fairly  when  read ;  and  to  give  a  know- 
ledge of  worthy  masterpieces  in  literature  and  the  power  to  dis- 
criminate wisely  among  the  mass  of  contemporary  writings  of 
our  own  day.  It  is  doubtful  if  formal  grammar  serves  as  the  best 
means  for  developing  the  ideals  that  are  sought  in  the  work  of 
English,  particularly  when  taught  as  an  isolated  subject  consid- 
erably apart  from  its  concrete  connection  with  daily  human 
expression  and  current  readings.  As  presented  by  many  teach- 
ers, it  is  treated  as  an  end  in  itself,  not  as  a  means  to  a  more 
noteworthy  end.  The  true  way  to  acquire  habits  of  correct  oral 
and  written  speech  and  the  power  to  analyze  the  thought  of  lit- 
erary selections  is  by  speaking,  writing  and  analyzing  repeatedly 
and  doing  so  under  the  stress  of  current  needs  or  real  motives, 
not  in  a  formal,  abstract  manner  under  circumstances  that  are 
artificial  and  forced.  In  like  manner  the  way  to  develop  refined 
taste  and  true  appreciation  of  literature  is  by  the  repeated  study 
of  works  of  literary  merit,  following  always  however  the  univer- 
sally accepted  pedagogical  law  of  proceeding  slowly  and  grad- 
ually from  the  child's  immediate  interests  to  the  interests  of 
more  mature  life,  and  providing  constantly  for  variety  of  form 
and  subject-matter  in  the  studies  that  are  presented. 

Although  in  the  junior  high-school  work  in  Grand  Rapids 
these  ideals  and  maxims  are  acknowledged  in  theory,  they  are  not 
actually  put  into  operation  in  practices  so  fully  as  seems  desir- 
able. Throughout  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  formal  English 


232  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

grammar  is  prescribed  for  every  pupil,  except  indeed,  the  few 
whose  linguistic  attainments  have  been  sufficiently  satisfactory 
to  permit  them  to  be  enrolled  in  courses  in  Latin  or  German. 
Even  then,  however,  fifty  per  cent  of  the  %time  allotment  is  ex- 
pected to  be  used  for  work  in  English  grammar.  Except  at  the 
South  High  School,  every  pupil  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades, 
whether  possessed  of  literary  interests  or  not,  whether  his  stay 
in  school  is  destined  to  be  brief  or  prolonged,  is  required  to  devote 
live  periods  per  week  to  grammar  coupled  with  composition 
work  and  work  of  oral  expression.  In  addition,  except  at  the 
South  High  School,  supplementary  work  to  the  extent  of  three, 
four  or  five  periods  per  week  are  prescribed  for  reading,  spelling, 
and  writing,  in  the  ratios  of  3:1 :1.  Approximately  eight  or  ten 
periods,  therefore,  of  the  usual  allotment  of  twenty-five  (except 
at  the  South  High  School)  are  taken  up  with  what  may  be  styled 
work  in  English. 

Much  of  the  teaching  of  grammar  that  was  observed  was 
good,  and  pupil  responses  not  infrequently  were  highly  credit- 
able. Nevertheless,  for  many  students,  it  was  evident  that  the 
subject  was  of  little  interest  and  of  doubtful  profit.  They  pursued 
it  because  they  were  forced  to  pursue  it,  but  evinced  a  spirit  that 
betokened  a  withdrawal  from  school  as  soon  as  the  power  of  the 
compulsory  school  law  was  lifted.  In  like  manner,  much  of  the 
"Reading"  was  truly  a  study  of  literature  for  its  content  value, 
but  in  as  many  instances  the  aim  seemed  to  be  to  stress  form  and 
fluency  only — and  even  this  was  not  well  done  in  some  of  the 
classrooms  visited.  Moreover,  there  was  little  freedom  accorded 
the  teacher  in  the  selection  of  the  material  to  be  studied.  Elsen's 
Third  and  Fourth  Readers  are,  assuredly,  text-books  of  merit,  but 
much  of  the  material  they  contain  is  unappealing  to  many  stu- 
dents. The  wonderful  riches  of  some  of  America's  magazines  of 
today,  a  few  of  the  worth-while  contemporary  books  of  adven- 
ture, fiction,  biography,  history,  and  description,  and  some  of  the 
excellently  arranged  supplementary  school  readers  certainly 
ought  not  to  be  excluded  from  the  course  nor  be  forbidden,  or  un- 
known, to  the  teachers  and  class, — an  ideal  which,  happy  to  say, 
an  occasional  teacher  of  English  in  the  junior  high  school  grades 
has  already,  though  perhaps  unofficially,  sought  to  realize. 

Educational  theorists  have  for  some  time  contended  that  six 
years  devoted  to  the  formal  aspects  of  reading,  writing  and  spell- 
ing are  sufficient  to  give  to  all  normal  children  the  fundamentals 
of  those  arts,  and  that  whatever  additional  training  is  provided 
should  be  secured  incidentally  in  connection  with  the  teaching 
of  content  studies.  Why  Grand  Rapids,  in  view  of  these  estab- 
lished theories,  should  continue  to  so  large  a  degree  to  adhere 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  233 

to  traditional  practices  is  not  clear.  While  stressing  so  much  the 
formal  aspect  of  English  there  surely  is  a  diminution  of  time 
available  for  the  content  side.  Moreover,  the  question  persistent- 
ly arises:  Are  ten  periods  (or  even  seven  or  eight  periods)  per 
week  devoted  to  English  in  all  its  phases  the  best  possible  distri- 
bution of 'time  for  all  types  of  mind,  or  even  for  the  majority  of 
pupils  of  the  two  grades  under  consideration?  May  not  the  policy 
of  allowing  certain  pupils  of  keen  language  interests  to  substitute 
Latin  or  German  for  formal  English  grammar  be  a  wise  policy  to 
adopt  (the  work  to  be  substituted  being  altered)  for  other  types 
of  pupils,  that  is,  for  those  who  do  not  profit  greatly  by  any 
formal  language  study?  May  not,  in  concrete,  a  course  in  busi- 
ness English,  shop  English,  conversational  English,  magazine 
English,  or  a  course  embodying  elements  from  all  such  fields,  be 
fittingly  employed  more  freely  than  at  present? 

Undeniably  one's  own  vernacular  language  and  literature  are 
pre-eminently  important  for  each  person.  Hence  some  type  of  a 
course  in  English  should  be  pursued  by  every  pupil  in  every 
grade  in  the  junior  high  school.  But  it  is  seriously  questioned 
whether  much  of  the  offerings  and  prescriptions  in  English  in 
most  of  the  junior  high  schools  of  Grand  Rapids  is  the  best  and 
wisest.  What  a  large  number  of  seventh  and  eighth  grade  pupils 
will  find  most  valuable,  there  is  evidence  to  believe,  is  a  course  in 
which  literary  selections  are  largely  taken  from  current  writings 
dealing  with  science,  nature,  industry,  travel,  biography,  history, 
current  events,  social  questions^  stories  and  fiction,  and  in  which 
the  expressional  work,  both  oral  and  written,  is  based  upon,  and 
motivized  by,  the  impressions  gained  through  the  study  of  such 
selections  and  through  the  common  everyday  experiences  of  life. 
True  development  in  language  power  comes  from  having  some- 
thing to  say  and  a  motive  for  saying  it  forcefully,  fittingly,  and 
understandingly.  It  appears,  therefore,  convincing  that  much  of 
the  work  in  English  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  needs  to  be 
analyzed  critically  and  reorganized  sympathetically.  The  teach- 
ers of  Grand  Rapids  have  in  the  past  worked  out  co-operatively 
some  very  satisfactory  courses  of  study.  It  would  be  advan- 
tageous if  they  should  undertake  anew  a  revision  of  the  work  in 
English. 

Similarly,  the  organization  of  the  work  in  mathematics  in 
the  junior  high  schools  is  not  in  full  accord  with  present-day  psy- 
chological and  sociological  theories,  nor  with  the  practices  of 
many  of  the  most  progressive  schools  of  America  and  of  foreign 
lands.  Except  for  a  small  group  of  pupils  of  superior  mathe- 
matical ability,  the  offering  in  this  subject  are  confined  entirely 
to  arithmetic,  and,  nominally  at  least,  to  the  formal,  more  or  less 


234  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

unvitalized  arithmetic  of  the  typical  text-book  kind.  In  some 
classes,  it  is  true,  supplementary  arithmetical  work  of  a  concrete, 
practical  character  is  presented,  but  it  is  introduced  more  or  less 
unauthoratatively,  is  in  the  form  of  additional  work,  not  substi- 
tute work,  and,  at  most,  is  given  apparently  a  rather  inconspic- 
uous place  in  the  program. 

Here,  again,  flexibility  of  administration  of  the  school  oper- 
ates for  the  benefit  of  those,  who  need  it  least.  The  youths  who  do 
well  in  formal  mathematics,  who  are  planning  to  continue  their 
schooling  in  the  senior  high  school  and  perchance  in  college,  are 
allowed  to  enter  upon  the  study  of  algebra  a  year  or  a  half  year 
earlier  than  they  naturally  would  under  the  old  traditional  ar- 
rangement. The  youth  who  has  little  interest  in  mathematics 
and  who  perhaps  is  not  especially  proficient  in  the  subject  is 
kept  droning  over  the  same  type  of  material  which  he  has  sought 
to  work  through  since  almost  his  first  entrance  into  school  life. 
Why  such  an  individual  should  be  forced  to  thresh  over  old 
straw  when  it  is  apparent  the  effort  is  yielding  little  profit  or  re- 
turns is  an  unanswered  question.  To  reiterate  a  statement  which 
has  once  before  been  made  in  this  report,  the  ideal  of  the  junior 
high  school  is  to  provide  a  testing-place  for  pre-adolescent  boys 
and  girls  who  are  seeking  to  discover  themselves.  Striking  in- 
dividual differences  are  known  to  characterize  the  young  people 
of  this  stage  of  development.  The  demand  on  the  schools,  then, 
is  to  provide  for  these  differences — just  as  surely  and  effectively 
for  the  ones  who  have  brief  educational  careers  before  them  or 
are  not  distinctively  literary  minded,  as  for  those  with  a  long 
school  course  ahead  of  them  or  who  are  particularly  interested  in 
tradional  school  materials.  It  is  true,  principals  have  the  au- 
thority of  excusing  from  the  specifically  outlined  courses  of  study 
such  pupils  as  are  found  to  be  wholly  unsuited  to  pursue  them, 
but  the  power  is  exercised  very  infrequently.  Only  the  unusually 
retarded  and  exceedingly  undeveloped  pupil  is  thus  irregularly 
classified.  Provision  in  which  the  uniform  prescriptions  are 
wholly  ignored  or  radically  modified  for  entire  sections  of  pupils 
is  unknown. 

Moreover,  why  the  simpler  processes  of  algebra — in  partic- 
ular the  knowledge  and  use  of  the  simple  algebraic  equation — are 
denied  any  pupils  whatever  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  is 
surely  inexplicable.  Why  the  beauties  of  form  and  the  graphical 
representations  of  space  as  revealed  in  constructive  geometry  are 
never,  or  rarely,  made  a  part  of  the  instruction  in  these  grades  is 
mystifying.  Practical  mathematicians  have  repeately  urged  the 
advantages  of  the  more  elementary  and  fundamental  portions  of 
these  two  branches  of  mathematics  over  much  of  the  arithmetical 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  235 

material  that  is  incorporated  in  our  school  work.  Teachers  and 
administrators  of  experience  have  many  times  discovered  the  fact 
that  pupils  inapt  and  dull  in  dealing  with  relatively  complicated 
arithmetical  processes  and  problems  have  entered  with  avidity 
upon  the  study  of  algebra  or  geometry  and  have  shown  unexpect- 
ed ability  in  the  new  work.  And  yet,  in  spite  of  these  established 
facts,  the  school  authorities  in  Grand  Rapids  adhere  to  the  policy 
of  withholding  these  subjects  from  pupils  of  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grades  until  after  they  have  completed  the  customary 
stated  amount  of  formal  arithmetic  in  those  grades.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  authorities  swing  to  the  equally  indefensible  extreme 
of  absolutely  prescribing  an  entire  year's  work  in  algebra  for 
every  pupil  before  he  completes  the  junior  high-school  course  and 
before  he  is  admitted  to  full  senior  high-school  rank.  Absolutely 
to  require  algebra  of  all  ninth-grade  pupils  is  a  survival  of  tradi- 
tional practices  and  can  not  be  justified  in  a  secondary  school 
system  designed  by  a  democratic  society  to  meet  the  practical, 
educational  and  social  needs  of  young  people  of  all  types  of  mind 
and  many  kinds  of  vocational  interest.  A  complete  over-hauling 
and  reorganization,  therefore,  of  the  course  in  mathematics  in  the 
junior  high  school  is  imperatively  needed,  and  is  earnestly  recom- 
mended. 

The  teaching  of  Latin  and  German  in  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grades  is  commendable.  Foreign  language  study  as  a  field  of 
youthful  exploration  surely  demands  a  place  in  a  school  that 
aims  to  serve  as  an  institution  of  introductory  secondary  training. 
It  is  a  well-accepted  pedagogical  principle  that  the  most  appro- 
priate time  in  which  to  begin  the  pursuit  of  a  foreign  language 
is  in  the  earlier  years  of  life,  before  marked  self-consciousness  has 
become  an  inhibitory  factor  in  expression  and  before  sensitive- 
ness to  the  misuses  of  the  conventional  forms  of  speech  is  acute. 
Foreign  language  study  should  not  be  substituted,  however,  for 
the  single  course  in  English  recommended  above,  but  should  be 
an  elective  subject  for  such  pupils  as  may,  after  consultation  with 
teachers  and  principal,  decide  to  select  it.  Moreover,  since  the 
dominant  purposes  of  the  elementary  courses  in  language  study 
is  to  test  linguistic  capacity,  the  work  should  be  made  as  inviting 
as  that  of  any  other  elective  subject.  It  is  therefore  doubtful  if 
school  credit  should  be  withheld  from  pupils  who  pursue  the  sub- 
ject one  year  and  then  discontinue  it  for  reasons  that  are  peda- 
gogically  satisfactory.  To  do  so  discourages  the  timid  student, 
though  possessing  unknown  language  interests,  from  electing 
the  courses  at  all,  and  encourages  the  mediocre  pupil,  who  some- 
what early  in  the  work  discovers  his  inaptitude  for  it,  to  continue 
his  unprofitable  efforts  for  the  sake  of  insuring  the  little  credit 


236  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN: 

he  has  already  conditionally  earned.  Persistency  of  application 
and  continuity  of  undertaking'  arc  assuredly  qualities  of  habit 
formation  that  need  to  be  cultivated  in  the  schools.  JJut  there  is 
no  great  educational  value  in  continued  and  continuing  defeat. 
"Nothing  succeeds  like  success"  is  a  maxim  venerable  by  age, 
but  the  opposite  statement  is  equally  true,  that  Nothing  fails  like 
failure.  Schoolmen  need  to  appreciate  this  fact,  and  while  not 
making  the  irregular  transition  from  course  to  course  an  easy 
transition,  yet  they  should  not  penalize  too  heavily  the  one  who, 
for  valid  reasons,  finds  such  change  conducive  to  his  best  inter- 
ests. In  fact  there  is  much  to  be  said  in  favor  of  a  general 
course  in  foreign  language  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades,  the 
same  as  a  general  course  is  fashioned  in  science  or  mathematics 
or  any  other  subject.  Few,  if  any,  pupils  know,  or  can  know,  with 
any  degree  of  certainty  whether  it  would  be  wiser  in  their  parti- 
cular cases  to  pursue  Latin  or  German  or  French  or  Spanish.  A 
course  that  should  extend  over  two  years  and  should  open  vistas 
of  thought  and  knowledge  respecting  the  country,  the  people,  the 
civilization,  the  language,  the  literature,  the  history,  of  each  of 
the  four  nations  of  Rome,  Germany,  France  and  Spain,  would, 
logically  and  psychologically  considered,  have  much  merit.  The 
dabbling  for  two  years  in  each  of  several  languages  has  been  the 
weakness  of  much  of  our  educational  administration  respecting 
language  study.  What  is  demanded  is  the  reduction  of  the  period 
of  dabbling  to  the  lowest  valuable  minimum,  and  the  extension 
of  the  period  of  continuity  of  study  to  the  longest  realizable 
maximum.  A  two-year  general  linguistc  course  in  the  seventh 
and  eighth  grades  would  effect  the  first  desideratum ;  the  building 
upon  this  course  for  four  or  more  additional  years — if  language 
study  were  to  be  continued  at  all — would  effect  the  second  ideal. 
The  idea  here  advanced  does  not,  of  course,  contemplate  a  five 
months'  course  in  each  of  the  four  languages.  What  is  advocated 
is  rather  a  course  about  foreign  languages  and  the  peoples  who 
use  them  than  a  course  in  several  foreign  languages.  Such  a 
course  would  seek  to  adduce  facts  of  geography,  history,  litera- 
ture, beliefs,  customs,  and  institutions  of  the  several  foreign 
nations  and  to  focus  these  on  the  question  of  language.  The 
work  should,  for  the  most  part,  be  conducted  in  English,  with  in- 
cidental use  of  foreign  terms  and  expressions  by  way  of  illustra- 
tions, and  should  make  extensive  use  of  maps,  pictures,  charts, 
lantern  slides  and  blackboards.  The  aim  of  such  a  course  would 
be  to  enable  pupils  to  know — as  well  as  such  a  course  could  lead 
them  to  know — the  essential  differences  and  striking  character- 
istics of  form  to  be  found  within  the  several  languages,  the  pur- 
pose and  significance  of  foreign  language  study  in  general,  and 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  237 

in  what  respects  each  particular  language  possesses  advantages 
over  the  other  languages  as  a  subject  of  formal  study  for  high 
schools,  if  any  pupil  should  elect  later  to  pursue  a  course  in  for- 
eign language  study  intensively.  Furthermore,  a  course  of  this 
type  might  be  expected  to  yield  some  power  of  appreciation  of 
the  culture  and  civilization  of  foreign  peoples — the  chief,  though 
often  unrealized,  end  of  more  extensive  foreign  language  courses 
in  senior  high  schools  and  colleges.  The  time  allotment  of  such 
a  course  might  properly  be  twice  per  week. 

A  course  of  this  kind  is  confessedly  open  to  the  criticism  that 
it  is  not  primarily  a  course  in  foreign  language,  but  is  historico- 
sociological  material.  That  criticism,  however,  holds  equally 
validly  with  regard  to  a  large  portion  of  the  material  which  enters 
into  nearly  every  course  in  foreign  language  study  in  schools 
and  colleges.  The  distinctive  merit  of  a  general  course  over  the 
typical  traditional  introductory  course  in  foreign  language  study 
is  its  frank  acknowledgement  of  emphasis  upon  content  values 
rather  than  form  values.  The  object  of  the  course  would,  there- 
fore, be  realized  if  pupils  who  pursued  it  were  guided  fittingly  in 
selecting,  or  omitting  to  elect,  formal  courses  in  language  study 
later  in  their  high-school  years.  Moreover,  to  make  a  course  of 
this  kind  at  all  profitable  would  necessarily  call  for  the 
services  of  no  immature  person  as  teacher,  but  one  who  has  trav- 
elled extensively,  studied  deeply,  and  lived  broadly.  Such  per- 
sons would  not  easily  be  found,  but  they  are  procurable.  The  en- 
tire idea,  though  perhaps  novel,  is  not  wholly  idealistic.  It  has 
its  prototype  in  certain  "appreciation  courses"  to  be  found  in  sev- 
eral schools  of  the  United  States.  Nevertheless,  the  idea  is  ad- 
vanced not  as  a  recommendation  for  permanent  adoption  but  as 
a  plan  for  a  promising  experiment.  The  measurable  results  of 
its  operation  would  give  justification  for  its  retention  or  give 
warrant  for  its  abandonment.  Should  any  youths  discover  their 
true  language  bent  before  the  completion  of  the  course  as  planned 
they  most  assuredly  should  be  permitted  to  pursue  formally  the 
language  of  their  choice. 

The  work  in  history  in  the  junior  high  school  grades  also 
needs  revision.  It  certainly  is  doubtful  whether  ancient  history 
in  the  ninth  grade  is  the  most  inviting,  valuable  or  appropriate 
course  for  pupils  of  that  stage  of  development.  "Ancient  Mis- 
ery" as  one  pupil  styled  it,  it  certainly  is  for  many  young  people. 
The  events  described  are  so  remote  in  point  of  time,  the  treat- 
ment of  the  topics  is  frequently  so  needlessly  and  discouragingly 
detailed,  and  the  articulation  of  the  subject-matter  is  so  often  so 
loosely  made  with  the  present-day  interests  of  boys  and  girls  that 
the  subject  makes  little  or  no  gripping  appeal  to  large  numbers  of 


238  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

them.  Moreover,  the  ninth  grade  is  a  grade  so  critical  for  school 
mortality  that  wisdom  would  seem  to  dictate  that  whatever  work 
in  history  is  offered  here  should  be  organized  with  the  thought 
pre-eminently  in  mind  of  interesting  pupils  and  developing  in 
them  a  love  for  historical  study. 

In  place,  then,  of  ancient  history  with  its  many  unsatisfying 
and  unsatisfactory  results  a  course  that  may  fittingly  be  styled 
elementary  social  science  may  with  wisdom  be  substituted.  Such 
a  course  should  aim  to  connect  the  pupil  intimately  and  con- 
sciously with  the  institutional  forms  about  him  and  to  make  him 
sensitive  to  the  contemporary  demands  of  society  upon  individ- 
uals, and  conversely  with  the  influence  that  individuals  are  daily 
exerting  in  modifying  institutional  and  social  agencies  and  pro- 
cesses. Such  a  course  might  appropriately  begin  with  a  study 
of  local  history  as  it  is  related  to  world  history  of  the  last  cen- 
tury; might  build  on  this  foundation  an  elementary  knowledge 
of  political  economy  and  commercial  and  industrial  history  and 
sociology;  and  culminate  in  a  survey  of  the  political,  industrial 
and  cultural  activities  and  agencies  of  Grand  Rapids.  Through- 
out the  course  stress  should  surely  be  laid  on  the  question  of  vo- 
cational choices  and  vocational  guidance  in  much  the  same  man- 
ner in  which  work  of  this  nature  is  at  present  so  admirably  done 
throughout  the  school  system. 

Precisely  as  in  respect  to  the  other  introductory  courses  ad- 
vocated in  this  report,  the  successful  administration  of  a  course 
like  the  one  sketched  here  will  require  that  no  novice  or  young 
college  graduate  be  placed  in  charge  of  it.  The  judicious  teaching 
of  history  at  any  stage  in  the  school  calls  for  a  relative  maturity 
of  judgment  and  an  experience  with  the  world  of  social  inter- 
course which  few  persons  under  the  age  of  twenty-five  can  possi- 
bly have  acquired.  What  particularly  is  needed  at  this  period 
of  the  pupils'  development  is  a  teacher  whose  chief  concern,  to 
paraphrase  a  much-used  thought,  is  to  teach  boys  and  girls  and 
not  merely  the  subject-matter  of  the  books. 

Undoubtedly  the  elementary  course  in  United  States  History 
and  Government  in  the.  eighth  grade  is  fittingly  placed  where  it 
is.  In  a  system  of  schools  that  is  supported  by  the  state  emphasis 
should  surely  be  placed  on  the  development  of  the  intelligent 
and  law-abiding  citizen.  Little  argument,  therefore,  is  needed  to 
justify  the  inclusion  of  a  systematic  course  in  the  history  of  our 
own  country.  The  correlation,  too,  of  history  and  geography  in 
the  seventh  grade  is  clearly  feasible. 

The  one  serious  criticism  that  might  be  directed  to  the  organ- 
ization of  the  history  work  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  is 
that  no  provision  is  made  for  the  presentation  or  study  of  the 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  239 

great,  significant  world  movements  of  all  time,  nor  for  the  sys- 
tematic study  of  the  notable  human  characters  who  have  played 
their  parts  therein.  True  it  is  that  biographical  studies  do  con- 
stitute a  part  of  the  offerings  in  the  earlier  years  of  a  pupil's 
schooling  in  Grand  Rapids  but  in  the  nature  of  the  case  they  can, 
below  the  seventh  grade,  include  little  else  than  the  more  strik- 
ing characteristics  of  personalty  and  the  more  simple  events  in 
the  lives  of  heroes  and  heroines.  Biographical  studies  as  an 
agency  for  revealing  the  great  revolutionizing,  social  forces  that 
have  been  operating  in  world  history  since  its  beginning,  must 
necessarily  be  deferred  to  a  somewhat  later  period.  At  twelve 
or  thirteen  years  of  age,  however,  pupils  have  reached  the  stage 
when  they  are  intensely  interested  in  human  beings  not  only  as 
human  beings,  but  also  as  authors  and  interpreters  of  social  pro- 
cesses. Here,  then,  is  a  time  in  which  historical  studies  centering 
about  notable  men  and  women  can  have  a  wonderfully  appealing 
influence.  Moreover,  unless  pupils  of  this  age  are  given  the  op- 
portunity to  get  acquainted  with  the  great  significant  human 
movements  of  the  entire  past,  many  of  them,  because  of  their 
withdrawals  from  school,  will  never  learn  of  them  in  any  sys- 
tematic way.  It  seems  reasonable,  therefore,  to  urge  that  instead 
of  devoting  so  long  a  period  as  three  semesters,  with  some  por- 
tions also  of  another  semester,  to  United  States  History  in  the 
seventh  and  eighth  grades,  that  a  course  in  world  history  through 
biography  be  provided.  This  could  well  be  placed  in  the  second 
half-year  of  the  seventh  grade  or  possibly  in  the  first  half-year  of 
this  grade.  Within  the  course  biographical  studies  and  corre- 
lated social  events  like  the  following  might  well  be  included 
(without  intending  to  be  either  dogmatic  or  complete  in  the  sel- 
ection of  topics)  :  Khufu,  Nebuchadnezzar,  Solomon,  Cyrus  the 
Great,  Xerxes,  Confucius,  Lycurgus,  Pericles  and  the  Golden  Age 
of  Greece,  Cincinnatus,  Hannibal,  Pompey,  Julius  Caesar,  Augus- 
tus Caesar,  Alaric,  St.  Benedict,  Mohammed,  Charles  the  Great, 
Alfred  the  Great,  William  the  Conqueror,  Robert  Bruce,  Joan 
of  Arc,  Frederick  Barbarossa,  Peter  the  Hermit,  Lorenzo  de 
Medici,  Marco  Polo,  Martin  Luther,  Queen  Elizabeth,  Philip  II 
of  Spain,  William  the  Silent,  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  Gustavus 
Adolphus,  Cromwell,  Marie  Antoinette,  Napoleon,  and  Bismarck. 

The  importance  of  the  study  of  history  in  a  civilization  such 
as  ours  is  today  and  the  disfavor  in  which  the  subject  is  at  present 
held  by  many  pupils  in  the  schools  gives  warrant  for  experimen- 
tation in  the  work  wherever  it  can  be  done.  Wherever  courses 
similar  to  the  one  advocated  here  have  been  provided  many  fav- 
orable results  have  been  obtained,  as  witness  for  example  the 
work  in  Berkeley,  California.  The  recommendation  is,  therefore, 


240  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

that  principals  be  authorized  to  test  the  merits  of  the  plan  if  oc- 
casion permits  and  conditions  favor. 

Elementary  science,  in  the  most  wonderful  scientific  and  in- 
dustrial age  of  the  world's  history,  should  need  little  argument  to 
justify  its  claim  for  a  conspicuous  and  permanent  place  in  the 
curriculum  of  a  school  that  professes  to  be  (as  has  repeatedly 
been  said)  a  school  for  laying  foundations  in  differentiated  know- 
ledge and  powers.  A  course  of  this  kind  has  recently — second 
semester  1914-15 — been  put  in  operation  in  the  Grand  Rapids  sys- 
tem. However,  in  two  of  the  schools  it  is  allotted  but  two  class 
periods  per  week;  is,  in  the  third  school,  planned  for  a  single 
semester's  election ;  and  is  generally  available  only  for  those 
pupils  who  have  completed  the  first  half  of  the  eighth  grade  and 
have  passed  all  subjects  therein  with  term  grades  not  lower 
than  "G" — the  second  highest  grade  given  in  the  school  system. 
Here,  again,  is  seen  the  operation  of  the  principle  already  several 
times  pointed  out  as  being  in  effect  in  Grand  Rapids,  that  "he 
that  hath,  to  him  shall  be  given :  and  he  that  hath  not,  from  him 
shall  be  taken  even  that  which  he  hath."  The  youth  who  is  in- 
terested in  things,  who  is  eager  for  something  concrete  and  tan- 
gible, who  yearns  for  that  which  is  different  from  the  linguistic, 
arithmetic,  grammatic  studies,  and  who  perchance  does  not  sus- 
tain himself  especially  well  in  the  work  of  those  branches  is  re- 
pressed, discriminated  against,  and  not  permitted  to  test  his  capa- 
city and  strength  in  what  might  prove  to  be  the  most  attractive 
and  profitable  field  of  all  for  him.  Grand  Rapids  needs  therefore 
to  expand,  liberalize  and  popularize  the  course  in  general  science 
in  the  junior  high  school  and  make  it  available,  if  not  compulsory, 
for  all  pupils  in  regular  standing  in  the  eighth  grade.  Particular- 
ly does  the  industrial  character  of  the  city  make  such  a  course 
one  of  the  minimum  essentials  of  the  training  of  all  its  future 
citizens. 

The  work  in  physiology  as  at  present  given  is  exceedingly 
lacking  in  uniformity  and  in  seriousness  of  presentation.  Merely 
to  make  it  a  reading  lesson  in  connection  with  the  wrork  in  Eng- 
lish, as  it  is  in  several  of  the  sections,  is  to  take  from  it  its  dignity 
as  well  as  much  of  its  worth.  Especially  true  is  this  statement 
when  the  reading  lesson  in  conducted  almost  solely  for  the  sake 
of  formal  values  and  with  little  attention  to  the  content  side  of 
what  is  read.  The  work  should  either  be  given  over  entirely  to 
the  director  of  physical  training,  or  be  incorporated  in  the  course 
in  elementary  science.  If  it  is  to  be  taught  by  the  several  teach- 
ers of  reading  as  at  present  it  certainly  should  be  raised  to  a  high- 
er plane  of  worth  and  merit. 

The  work  provided  in  manual  training  and  domestic  science 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  241 

and  arts,  is  adequate  and  calls  for  no  especial  comment.  The  plan 
of  giving  each  boy  and  each  girl  an  elementary  acquaintance 
with  four  aspects  of  the  two  general  lines  of  work  respectively 
(woodworking,  machine  shop,  forge  or  metal  work,  and  printing 
for  the  boys ;  and  sewing,  cooking,  millinery,  and  household  de- 
signing for  the  girls)  is  an  arrangement  that  is  in  perfect  har- 
mony with  the  ideals  of  what  the  character  and  functions  of  a 
junior  high  school  are.  The  flexibility  of  administration  of«the 
various  divisions  of  the  work  and  of  the  several  sections  of  pupils 
in  each  is  highly  commendable.  In  like  manner  the  provision  for 
special,  short-time,  or  intensified  courses  in  printing,  commercial 
work,  manual  arts,  and  other  school  subjects  to  meet  the  needs 
of  pupils  with  peculiar  school  interests  and  limited  economic  re- 
sources is  to  be  approved.  The  single  recommendation  that  is 
to  be  made  respecting  the  administration  of  such  work  is  that 
the  authority  to  enroll  pupils  in  the  several  more  or  less  irregu- 
lar courses  be  exercised  by  principals,  not  necessarily  more  fre- 
quently than  at  present  but  perhaps  more  willingly  and  less 
reluctantly,  whenever  the  circumstances  of  individual  pupils  seem 
to  warrant  granting  deviations  from  the  standard  arrangements. 

Whether,  too,  pupils  in  the  eighth  grade  in  all  the  schools 
and  not  alone  at  the  Union  School,  ought  not  to  be  permitted 
to  elect  some  work  in  the  commercial  department — at  least  to  the 
extent  of  testing  out  their  interests  in  this  field  the  same  as  in 
any  other — is  a  fair  question  to  raise.  There  seems  to  be  no  valid 
reason  why  they  should  not  do  so,  and,  indeed,  several  positive 
arguments  why  they  should.  In  the  first  place  commercial  work 
well  taught  possesses  unique  educational  value  of  its  own,  the 
same  as  any  other  subject;  secondly,  the  opportunity  to  elect  a 
single  course  in  commercial  work  each  term  of  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grades  would  tend  to  retain  in  school  some  who  otherwise 
would  possibly  withdraw  when  occasion  permitted ;  and  thirdly, 
it  would  enable  some  pupils  to  lay  the  foundations  for  specific 
vocational  work  while  continuing  to  pursue  somewhat  longer  a 
generally  cultural  course.  It  is,  therefore,  recommended  that  the 
school  authorities  organize  the  work  so  as  to  make  some  courses 
in  commercial  branches  elective  to  pupils  below  the  ninth  grade 
in  all  the  junior  high  schools. 

The  work  in  music  and  art,  though  somewhat  limited  in 
amount  for  the  pupil  in  the  general  course,  is  doubtless  adequate 
considering  the  demand  of  other  subjects.  In  the  department  of 
art  in  particular  the  instruction  is  chiefly  of  an  individual  char- 
acter and  hence  pupils  may  advance  as  far  and  as  rapidly  as  their 
several  talents  permit. 

All  factors  considered,  the  program  of  studies  provided  for 


242  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

the  junior  high  schools  of  Grand  Rapids  is  as  varied  and  exten- 
sive as  can  usually  be  found  in  a  city  of  approximately  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  thousand  people,  and,  so  far  as  the  range  of 
offering  is  concerned,  it  is  about  as  suited  to  local  needs  as  the 
economic  resources  will  permit.  The  chief  defect  is,  as  stated  at 
the  outset  of  this  section  of  the  report,  too  little  flexibility  of  ad- 
ministration. The  reorganization  and  readaptation  which  Grand 
Rapids  has  gradually  been  introducing  during  the  past  several 
years  has  not  gone  forward  either  sufficiently  far  or  sufficiently 
rapidly.  The  interests  and  desires  of  the  fortunate  few  who  have 
pretty  definitely  selected  their  courses  in  school  and  perchance  in 
life,  and  those  who  have  rather  superior  intellectual  ability  on  the 
whole  are  well  and  adequately  provided  for.  The  youths  who 
possess  no  decided  bent  in  life  and  who  are  striving  desper- 
ately to  discover  themselves,  those  who  are  somewhat  indifferent 
to  the  traditional  offerings  of  the  school  and  yet  are  decidedly 
not  stupid  nor  lazy,  and  those  who  are  perhaps  of  mediocre  in- 
tellectual ability  and  yet  are  sufficiently  ambitious  to  seek  to 
attain  to  an  education  commensuate,  at  least,  with  high-school 
graduation — for  all  these  types  the  administration  of  the  program 
of  studies  works  not  infrequently  to  a  disadvantage.  The  pro- 
visions already  made  for  the  accelerant  groups  and  for  the  retard- 
ed groups  should  be  continued,  but  similar  attention  should  be 
given  to  the  peculiar  individual  needs  as  they  arc  discoverable 
among  the  great  mass  of  normal  pupils. 

For  the  sake  of  comparisons  there  are  inserted  here  the 
programs  of  study  for  the  intermediate  schools  (junior  high 
schools)  as  they  are  in  operation  in  several  cities  of  the  country. 

Solvay,  N.   Y.,  Intermediate  Schools 

7th  and  8th  Grades 

Open  to  All  Pupils  Who  Have  Finished  the  6th  Grade 

ACADEMIC  COURSE 

(Modern  Language) 

(  Composition — oral  and  written 
Formal  English     j  Grammar 

(  Good  usage 
Literature 
German 

Arithmetic  and. introductory  mathematics  7th   grade 
Algebra  and  geometry  (Introductory)  8th  grade 
Physiology  and  nature  study  7th  grade 
Biology  8th  grade 
American  and  current  history 
Commercial  and  industrial  geography 
Practical  and  household  arts 
Gymnasium 

Drawing  (Appreciation) 
Music 
Penmanship 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  243 

BUSINESS  COURSE 


(  Reading 
Formal  English     j  Spelling 

(  Grammar  and  composition 
Literature 

Commercial  arithmetic  and  bookkeeping 
Physiology  and  science  7th  grade 
Biology  8th  grade 
American  and  current  history 
Commercial   and   industrial   geography 
Typewriting 

Practical  and  household  arts 
Drawing  and  appreciation 
Music 

Gymnasium  for  girls 
Penmanship 


ACADEMIC    COURSE 
(English) 


English 


Writing 

Appreciation — reading   selected    stories 
Oral  and  written  composition 
Memory  selections 


Correct  usage 
Technical  grammar 
Spelling 

Arithmetic:  applications  of  percentage  and  mensuration 

Physiology  and  nature  study 

American   history.     Preparation  to  pass  regents'  examinations 

Commercial    and    industrial    geography    and    review    of    geography    for 

regents'  examinations 

Manual  training  and  mechanical   drawing 
Household  science 


Open  to  Pupils  12^  Years  Old 

PRACTICAL  ARTS 

For  Boys 
Reading 


Formal   English 


Spelling 


Grammar  and  good  usage 
Composition,  oral  and  written 

Literature  (Appreciation) 
Arithmetic  and  mechanical  drawing 
Physiology  and  general  science 
American  and  current  history 
Commercial  and  industrial  geography 
Shop 
Music 
Penmanship 


244  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

HOUSEHOLD  ARTS  COURSE 

For  Girls 

Reading 


Formal   English         Urammar 


Spelling 
Gramma 
Composition 


Literature 

Arithmetic 

Physiology  and  general  science 

American  and  current  history 

Commercial  and  industrial  geography  applied  to  household  management 

Drawing  and  appreciation 

Music 

Cooking 

Sewing 

Gymnasium 

Penmanship 

VOCATIONAL  COURSE  IN  GENERAL  INDUSTRY 
For  Boys 

Reading 


Formal  English 


Spelling 
Grammar 


Composition 

Arithmetic  and  mechanical  drawing 

American  history 

Commercial  and  industrial  geography   (alternate  years) 

Shop  drawing 

Shop  practice 

VOCATIONAL  COURSE  IN  HOME  MAKING 
For  Girls 


Formal  English 


Reading 
Spelling 
Grammar 


Composition 

Applied  arithmetic  and  bookceping 

History 

Industrial  geography  and  textiles 

Citizenship  and  hygiene 

Plain  sewing  and  dressmaking 

Cooking 

Home  furnishing  and  decoration 

Costume  design  and  millinery  design 

Household  economics. 

Household  science 

Home  nursing 

Music 

Physical  training 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  245 

READJUSTMENT  YEAR 

9th  Grade. 
PREPARATORY  COURSES. 

Formal    English 

Literature 

German  First  column  refers  to  number 

Introductory  mathematics  of  40-minute   periods  per  week. 

Biology  5-5 

Current  history  2-2  Second      column      refers     .to 

Drawing  4-2  school    credits. 

21 

(Regents'  counts,  16  or  17.) 

The  work  of  the  7th  and  8th  grades  of  the  Academic  Modern 
Language  and  Mathematics  Course  may  be  accepted  in  place  of  the  1st 
year  high  school  or  9th  grade  work  of  this  course. 


COMMERCIAL   COURSE. 

Formal  English  3-3  Typewriting 

Literature  Penmanship  3-1 

General  science 

Current  history  2-2 

Elementary  bookkeeping         5-5 

The  work  of  the  7th  and  8th  grades  of  the  Business  Course  may 
be  accepted  in  place  of  the  1st  year  high  school  or  9th  grade  work  of 
this  course. 


PRACTICAL  ARTS. 

Formal  English  3-3  Mechanical  drawing  4-2 

Literature  Shop  8-4 

Mathematics  (Shop) 

Current  history  2-2  20 

General  science  5-5 

The  work  of  the  7th  and  8th  grades  of  the  Practical  Arts  course  may 
be  accepted  in  place  of  the  1st  year  high  school  or  9th  grade  work  of 
this  course. 


HOUSEHOLD  ARTS. 

Formal  English  3-3  Dressmaking  5-3 

Literature  2-2  Drawing  4-2 

Current  history  2-2 

General  science  5-5  20 

Cooking  5-3 

The  work  of  the  7th  and  8th  grades  of  the  Household  Arts  Course 
may  be  accepted  in  place  of  the  1st  year  high  school  or  9th  grade  work 
of  this  course. 


246 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


INTERMEDIATE  SCHOOLS— LOS  ANGELES,  CALIFORNIA. 

Course  of   Study  for  Term   Beginning   September,    1912. 

GENERAL  COURSE— REQUIRED  SUBJECTS 


Seventh  Year 
English  5 
Arithmetic  5 
Geography,  B7 
History,  A7           '  5 
Physical  Training  1 
Music  2 
Drawing  2 
Penmanship  2 
Manual    Training: 
Girls:   Cooking  2 
Sewing  2 
Boys:    Wood- 
work 4 


Eighth  Year 

English  5 

History  and  Civics  5 

Physical  Training  2 

Oral   English,    B8  2 

Music,   A8  2 
Physiology  and 

Hygiene  2 
Manual  Training: 
Girls:  Cooking  ? 
Sewing  2 
Boys:   Wood- 
work 4 


Ninth  Year 
English  5 

Physical  Training  ^ 
Music    or    oral 
English  2 


Select   1   of  the  fol- 
lowing: 

French  5 

German  5 

Spanish  5 

Latin  5 

Bookkeeping  5 

Stenography  5 

Note:  Two  lang- 
uages may  be  select- 
ed only  by  permis- 
sion. 


ELECTIVE   SUBJECTS 

Select  2  of  the  fol- 
lowing: 

French  5 

German  5 

Spanish  5 

Latin  5 

Bookkeeping  5 

Stenography  5 
Mathematics: 

Arithmetic,   B8     5 

Algebra,    A8  5 
Drawing: 
Freehand   or 

Mechanical  5 


Select  3  of  the  fol- 
lowing: 

French,   German, 

Spanish  or  Latin  5 

Bookkeeping  5 
Stenography 

Algebra  5 

Com.   Arithmetic  5 

Ancient  History  5 

General  Science  5 

Select   1   of  the   fol- 
lowing: 

Manual  Training: 
Girls:     Cooking  5 
Sewing     5 
Boys:     Wood- 
work        5 
Drawing: 
Freehand   or 
Mechanical        5 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 


247 


TRENTON,  N.  J.  INTERMEDIATE  SCHOOL. 


7th   Grade 


4  hours 


English 

English    or    Foreign 

Language  4  hours 

(Pupils  taking  English  have  3 
(y2)  Hr.  periods  on  typewriter.) 
Geography  and  History  4  hours 
Science  4  hours 

Mathematics  4  hours 


Academic  Hours     20 

Shop  4  hours 

Drawing — (1  one-hour 

period)  3  hours 

Gymnasium  —  (2      one- 
half  hour   periods         2  hours 

Music — (2  one-half  hour 

periods)  1   hour 


Shop  hours 
Total  hours 


10 


30 


8th   Grade 

English  4  hours 

English    or    Foreign 

Language  4  hours 

(Pupils    taking    English    shall 
have    3    one-half    hours    periods 
on  the  typewriter.) 
Geography  and  History  4  hours 
Science  4  hours 

Mathematics — (Including 

Elementary    Business 

Forms)  4  hours 


Academic  Hours     20 

Shop  4  hours 

Drawing — (1  one-hour 

period)  3  hours 

Gymnasium — (2    one- 
half  hour  periods   )     2  hours 

Music — (2  one-half  hour 

periods)  1   hour 


Shop  hours 
Total  hours 


10 


30 


9th  Grade 

Commercial 

English — 4   hrs. 
Bookkeeping — 4   hrs. 
Science — 4  hrs. 
History  and   Civics — 

4  hrs. 

Mathematics — 4   hrs. 
Typewriting — 4  hrs. 
Drawing — 2  hrs. 
Gymnasium  and  Music 

(As  in  Academic 

Course.) 


Academic 
English — 4  hrs. 
Foreign  Language — 

4  hrs. 

Science — 4  hrs. 
History     and     Civics — 

4  hours. 

Mathematics — 4   hrs. 
Shop — 4    hrs. 
Drawing — 2   hrs. 
Gymnasium — 3   hrs. 

(2   1   hr.  periods.) 

(2   l/2.   hr.  periods.) 
Music — 1  hr. 

(2  Yz  hr.  periods.) 

Each  day  consists  of  six  periods  of  sixty  minutes  each.  . 

Work  in  science  and  mathematics  will  demand  separate  classes  for 
girls  and  boys.  Mathematics  will  not  necessarily  be  the  same  for  all 
boys  and  girls  in  the  same  year. 


Industrial 

English — 4  hrs. 
Science — 4  hrs. 
History  and  Civics — 

4  hrs. 

Mathematics — 4   hrs. 
Shop — 6  hrs. 
Drawing — 4  hrs. 
Gymnasium  and  music 

(As   in   Academic 

Course.) 


248 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


OUTLINE   OF  COURSE   OF  STUDY   IN  THE  GRAND   RAPIDS, 
MICHIGAN,  JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


7-1   Grade 


English  (E  1) 

5 

Arithmetic  (M   1) 

5 

Geography  (G  7) 

4 

Reading  (R  1) 

1 

Bench  Work   (Sh   1) 

3 

Dom.    Science    (D    S    1) 

3 

Dom.  Art   (D  A  1) 

1 

Printing  (Print  1) 

1 

Music  (Mu  1) 

1 

Art    (Art    1) 

1 

-- 

21 

Elective  and  Special 

Business  Arith. 

5 

Applied  Eng. 

5 

Latin  (L  1) 

5 

Mech.  Draw. 

2 

German  (G  1) 

5 

Chorus  or  Orchestra 

2 

.8-1    Grade 

English  (E  3) 

5 

Arithmetic   (M  3) 

5 

American  History   (H  2) 

4 

Reading  (R  3) 

1 

Shop   WTork    (3) 

3 

Dom.  Science  (D  S  3) 

3 

Dom.  Art  (D  A  3) 

1 

Printing    (Print  3) 

1 

Music  (Mu  3) 

1 

Art  (Art  3) 

1 

21 

Elective  and  Special 

Latin  (L  3) 

5 

German  (G  3) 

c 

Mech.  Draw. 

3 

Business  Arith. 

5 

Applied  Eng. 
Chorus  or  Orchestra 

5 
2 

Printing                                5 

to  25 

Dom.  Art                              5 

to  10 

Art                                          5 

to  10 

Metal  Working 

2 

Elementary   Science 

2 

7-2   Grade 

English  (E  2)  5 
Arithmetic  (M  2) 

American  History  (H  1)  4 

Reading  (R  2)  1 

Bench  Work  (Sh  2)  3 

Dom.  Science  (D  S  2)  3 

Dom.  Art  (D  A  2)  ] 

Printing    (Print  2)  1 

Music  (Mu  2)  1 

Art  (Art  1)  1 

21 

Elective  and   Special 

Business  Arith.  5 

Applied   Eng.  5 

Chorus  or  Orchestra  2 
Printing  5  to  25 
Dom.  Art  5  to  10 

German  (G  2)  5 

Latin  (L  2)  5 

Mech.  Draw.  3 

8-2   Grade 

English  (E  4)  5 

Arithmetic  (M  4)  5 

American  History  (H  4)  4 

Reading  (R  4)  1 

Shop  Work   (4)  3 

Dom.  Science  (D  S  4)  3 

Dom.  Art  (D  A  4)  1 

Printing  (Print  4)  1 

Music   (Mu  4)  1 

Art   (Art  4)  1 

21 


Elective  and  Special 

5 
5 
3 
5 
5 
2 

5  to  25 
2 

5  to  10 


Latin  (L  4) 
German   (G  4) 
Mech.  Draw.   (2) 
Business  Arith. 
Applied   Eng. 
Chorus  or  Orchestra 
Printing 
Metal  Working 
Dom.  Art 


Art 

Elementary  Science 


5  to  10 
2 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  249 

9-1    Grade  .  9-2   Grade 

English  (E  5)  5  ?!lglish  ^61 

Algebra  (M  5)  5  Algebra  (M  6) 

Ancient  History  (H  5)  5  Ancient    History    (H    6) 

Latin  (L  5)  or  (L  5a)  5  Latin  (L  6  or  L  6a) 

German  (G  5)  or  (G  5a)  5  S,erm.an,  (£  6  or  G  6a) 

Pen.  and  Spelling  (P  &  S)  5  Physical   Geography    (S  6)        5 

Physical  Geography  (S  5)  5  Bookkeeping  (Bk  6) 

Bookkeeping  (Bk  5)  Dr.  &  Shop   (6)  5 

Dr.  &  Shop  (5)  5  ResigIV(D!S^n   A  ^            2/i 

Freehand  Draw.  (Fh  D  5)  2</>  SPm?st!cJ^rt  <D  ^  6)                5 

Domestic  Art    (D   A  5)  5  Physical  Tram.  (Ph  Tr  6) 

Physical  Train.    (Ph  Tr  5)  1 

Note  1:  This  course  of  study  in  7th  and  8th  grades  is  offered  only 
in  those  schools  that  have  departmental  organization  of  those  grades. 

Note  2:  The  number  opposite  each  subject  in  the  outline  indicates 
the  number  of  recitations  per  week  or  the  credit  toward  graduation. 

Note  3:  The  symbol  in  parenthesis  indicates  the  abbreviation  for 
the  subject  and  the  number  of  the  semester  in  which  it  is  given  counting 
from  the  7-1  grade. 

Grand  Rapids,  in  the  junior  high-school  work,  has  very  wise- 
ly departed  from  the  uniform  five-period  per  week  schedule  for 
all  classes.  The  essential  ideal  in  a  school  of  the  kind  under  con- 
sideration is  multiplicity  of  reactions,  an  attainment  of  many 
kinds  of  intellectual  and  emotional  experiences,  and  not  so  much 
completeness  of  knowledge  or  depth  of  insight.  Hence  it  follows 
that  pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  pursue  several  subjects  sim- 
ultaneously and  not  limit  their  work  to  a  relatively  small  number 
of  studies.  Nevertheless,  physical  and  mental  efforts  have  their 
limitations.  In  consequence  the  alternative  is  either  a  few  sub- 
jects pursued  somewhat  intensively  through  daily  recitation  per- 
iods or  a  larger  number  of  subjects  pursued  less  often  than  five 
times  per  week.  What  should  be  the  minimum  number  of  weekly 
class  periods  allowed  to  any  pupils  of  normal  health  has  never 
been  scientifically  determined.  In  Germany,  in  secondary  schools, 
youths  of  the  age  of  junior  high-school  pupils  in  America  are  re- 
quired to  carry  thirty,  thirty-one,  or  thirty-three  periods  per 
week.  In  France  and  also  in  several  other  European  countries 
the  number  of  class  recitation  periods  is  approximately  the  same. 
It  seems  very  reasonable  to  think  the  American  boys  and  girls 
are  able  to  carry  a  like  number  of  periods  and  that  they  should 
be  expected  to  do  so. 

In  order  to  administer  the  junior  high  school  with  the  degree 
of  flexibility  that  has  been  advocated  throughout  this  report- 
looking  carefully  after  the  interest  of  each  individual,  providing 
for  accelerant  groups,  retarded  groups,  differentiated  groups 
among  pupils  of  normal  capacities  but  varying  interests,  permit- 
ting the  election  for  extra  credit  of  supplementary  courses  in 


250  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

Latin,  German,  general  science,  and  other  subjects — in  order  to 
administer  such  a  program  with"  any  degree  of  ease  and  satisfac- 
tion, it  seems  both  necessary  and  desirable  that  the  "point"  sys- 
tem of  recording  credits  should  be  adopted  for  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grades  the  same  as  for  the  upper  grades  of  the  high 
school.  In  lieu  of  the  present  requirement  of  150  points  for  grad- 
uation a  total  of  250  might  justly  be  prescribed,  100  of  these 
nominally  to  be  acquired  in  the  lower  grades  of  the  junior  high 
school.  Indeed  there  is  much  to  be  said  in  favor  of  organizing 
the  entire  work  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  on  the  principle 
of  minimum  essential  prescriptions  for  all  pupils  and  optional 
electives  beyond  these.  At  the  present,  such  modifications  as  are 
permitted  in  the  selection  of  courses  come  about  for  the  most  part 
as  substitutions  for  other  or  traditional  courses,  and  not  usually 
as  additional  courses.  In  other  words,  bright,  ambitious  pupils 
who  looks  ahead  of  the  present  moment  and  seek  to  accumulate 
sufficient  credit  by  extra  efforts  to  permit  them  to  shorten  some- 
what the  period  usually  needed  for  graduation  from  high  school, 
have  no  definite  assurance  that  the  additional  efforts  will  be 
specifically  recognized  in  any  formal  manner  except  in  respect 
to  work  in  Latin  and  German.  Thus,  for  example,  pupils  who 
devote  much  time  beyond  what  is  prescribed  to  art,  drawing, 
manual  training,  domestic  science  and  art,  commercial  work,  and 
general  science  do  so  wholly  gratuitously.  Granted  that,  ideally 
speaking,  all  persons  should  undertake  works  of  supererogation, 
if  for  no  other  reason  than  the  subjective  effects  such  efforts  have 
upon  the  actor,  nevertheless  the  schools  are  organized  on  a  defin- 
ite basis  of  attainments,  marks,  credits,  promotions,  and  gradu- 
ation, and  pupils  recognize  the  fact  as  clearly  as  do  teachers  and 
administrators.  A  policy  of  the  sort  advocated  should  stimulate 
to  effort  many  a  person  who  can  only  with  difficulty  be  reached 
in  any  other  manner. 

The  plan,  too,  of  conducting  graduating  exercises  at  the  com- 
pletion of  the  eighth-grade  work  is  unwise.  The  custom  is  a  sur- 
vival of  a  practice  which  had  some  justification  at  a  time  when 
few  expected  to  continue  their  schooling  beyond  the  eighth  grade 
and  doubtless  needed  the  stimulus  of  the  prospective  honor  to 
hold  them  to  their  educational  work  even  through  this  grade. 
Today  different  traditions  and  the  operation  of  the  state  com- 
pulsory school  law  make  the  retention  of  the  custom  unnecessary. 
To  perpetuate  it  is  to  continue  to  accentuate  the  notion  that  the 
completion  of  the  work  of  the  eighth  grade  marks  a  natural  stop- 
ping point  in  schooling.  The  effect  of  such  exercises  is  likely 
therefore  to  be  diametrically  opposed  to  the  spirit  that  has  pro- 
duced the  junior  high  school.  Certificates  indicating  the  comple- 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  251 

tion  of  the  elementary  course  may  with  full  propriety  be  issued 
at  this  time,  or  at  the  end  of  the  junior  high-school  course,  but 
public  graduation  exercises  can  most  wisely  be  eliminated  entire- 
ly until  the  senior  high-school  course  has  been  finished. 

The  wisdom  of  segregating  pupils  by  sexes  in  certain  sub- 
jects has  not  as  yet  been  so  fully  tested  in  American  schools  as 
to  make  the  policy  thoroughly  defensible.  There  is,  however, 
much  to  be  said  in  favor  of  following  the  plan.  For  example, 
the  idea  of  providing  separate  sections  for  boys  and  girls  in 
eighth-grade  arithmetic  offers  many  advantages.  Boys  could 
then  be  given  instruction  and  drill  in  problems  that  relate  speci- 
fically to  boys'  interests  or  to  interests  that  boys  will  be  apt  to 
follow  when  men.  In  like  manner  the  work  for  girls  could  center 
about  the  problems  of  the  home  and  woman's  work  in  general. 
The  work  in  drawing  and  designing  lends  itself  to  a  similar  kind 
of  administration ;  while  the  segregation  of  pupils  in  study  or 
session  rooms  has  been  practiced  in  some  cities  for  years.  ,  It  is, 
therefore,  recommended  that  the  principals  take  up  for  considera- 
tion the  idea  of  putting  into  operation  the 'plan  of  sex  segregation 
in  certain  lines  of  work  and  arrive  at  some  definite  conclusions 
for  themselves. 

A  later  section  of  this  report  considers  the  question  of  teach- 
ers and  their  qualifications.  It  is,  however,  appropriate  here  to 
raise  the  question  of  the  ideal  for  teachers  in  the  junior  high 
school.  There  is  no  valid  reason  why  teachers  of  departmental- 
ized seventh  and  eighth  grades  should  not  possess  precisely  as 
thorough  a  training,  both  academic  and  professional,  as  the  teach- 
ers of  the  other  grades  of  the  high  school.  Indeed  there  are 
positive  reasons  why  it  should  be  so.  It  seems  appropriate  to  in- 
sist that  teachers  of  these  two  grades  should  possess  unusual 
ripeness  of  experience  both  in  life  in  general  and  in  school  work, 
vigorous  health,  commanding  presence,  inspiring  personality, 
sympathy,  and  an  abiding  interest  in  boys  and  girls  of  the  early 
adolescent  period.  There  are  probably  no  grades  in  the  entire 
school  system  that  lay  heavier  burdens  upon  a  teacher  than  the 
seventh  and  eighth  grades.  The  lower  grades  may  require  of  her 
peculiar  traits  of  natural  ability ;  the  upper  grades  may  demand 
of  her  a  knowledge  of  science  and  philosophy;  but  the  seventh 
and  eighth  grades  exact  of  her  the  qualities  of  studied  and  ripen- 
ed art.  In  the  senior  high  school  success  may  come  to  a  teacher 
who  teaches  well  her  subject ;  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades 
success  will  come  only  when  the  teacher  teaches  well  her  pupils. 

It  follows,  therefore,  that  none  but  the  scholarly  person  of 
mature  experience  should  be  put  in  charge  of  the  grades  under 
consideration — none  but  the  person  who  not  only  is  a  fair  master 


252  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

of  the  subject-matter  she  teaches  and  who  can  grasp  it  in  its 
entirety  and  diversity,  but  who  also  can  relate  it  artfully  to  the 
life  experiences  of  youths  who  are  just  beginning  to  discover 
themselves  in  a  world  of  reality  and  ideality.  It  matters  but  lit- 
tle in  education  how  the  finishing  touches  are  given  to  a  pupil's 
development ;  foundations  on  the  other  hand  are  all  important. 
The  task  of  introducing  pupils  for  the  first  time  to  new  lines  of 
thought  and  responses  calls  for  the  highest  skill,  as  most  college 
presidents  and  school  superintendents  and  principals  of  experi- 
ence can  readily  testify.  The  green,  callow  youth,  perfect  it  may 
be  in  the  knowledge  of  the  subject  to  be  taught,  but  ignorant 
of  the  deeper  meanings  of  life  and  life's  relations,  will  serve  the 
cause  of  education  vastly  better  if  put  in  charge  of  advanced 
rather  than  beginning  courses.  From  the  typical  young  A.  B. 
student  who  is  fresh  from  college  the  junior  high  school  should 
forever  be  delivered. 

In  developing  the  junior  high  schools  Grand  Rapids  has,  at 
least  in  part,  seemed  to  keep  this  ideal  before  it.  The  decision 
to  employ  henceforth-  none  but  college-bred  teachers  for  any 
grade  above  the  sixth  grade,  is  eminently  wise  and  proper.  The 
further  decision  to  put  these  teachers  on  the  same  salary  basis  ir- 
respective of  the  grades  in  which  they  teach  is  likewise  sound 
economy  and  sensible  pedagogy.  The  additional  determination 
to  require  teachers  to  assume  charge  of  classes  in  several  dis- 
tinct grades — from  the  seventh  to  the  twelfth — and  to  break 
down  any  false  notion  of  superiority  in  rank  solely  because  of  the 
teaching  of  advanced  pupils  is  wholesome  and  wise. 

Grand  Rapids  has  adopted  a  humane  and  sensible  policy  in 
not  unceremoniously  eliminating  from  the  school  system  old  and 
faithful  teachers  who  do  not  quite  measure  up  immediately  to  the 
new  standards.  Time  and  opportunity  for  making  readjustments 
must  be  permitted.  For  teachers  who  are  temperamentally  un- 
fitted for  departmental  work  in  the  new  system,  or  who  by  rea- 
son of  years  can  not  prepare  themselves  for  the  new  tasks,  or 
who  prefer  to  continue  in  undcpartmentalized  rooms,  transfers  of 
positions  must  be  made.  The  schools  exist  for  the  pupils,  not  for 
any  body  of  teachers  or  administrators.  Change  of  system  works . 
hardships  in  all  forms  of  activity  in  which  it  is  carried  out,  but 
so  long  as  care  is  exercised  to  minimize  the  disadvantages  to  the 
lowest  possible  degree  no  just  complaints  can  be  imposed. 

Hence  the  Board  of  Education  will  do  well  to  grant  leaves 
of  absence  to  such  teachers  as  seek  them,  to  the  end  that  they 
may  pursue,  if  they  desire,  academic  and  professional  work  at 
normal  schools  or  colleges,  and  thus  fit  themselves  anew  for  re- 
tention in  the  school  system.  Meanwhile,  it  will  be  wise  for 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  253 

heads  of  departments  in  the  senior  high  schools  to  exercise  super- 
visory control  over  the  work  that  is  carried  on  in  the  junior  high 
schools.  Departmental  staff  meetings,  at  which  shall  be  included 
teachers  of  the  same  subject  in  any  of  the  grades  above  the  sixth, 
should  certainly  be  held  at  frequent  intervals  and  a  spirit  of 
solidarity,  homogeneity  and  co-operation  should  be  developed. 

The  provisions  at  the  present  time  in  operation  for  meeting 
the  needs  of  pupils  in  recreational,  social  and  quasi-academic 
forms  are,  for  the  most  part,  appropriate  and  adequate  in  each 
school.  Departmental  clubs ;  literary,  dramatic  and  musical 
societies ;  opportunities  to  develop  interest  and  initiative  in  co- 
operative undertakings  relating  to  school  publications,  school 
assembly  meetings,  and  school  parties  are  numerous.  Physical 
training  and  facilities  for  securing  physical  recreation  are  being 
given  the  attention  they  deserve.  The  one  most  serious  lack  in 
respect  to  this  matter  is  found  at  the  South  High  School.  No 
playground  or  athletic  grounds  are  available  for  the  pupils  of  this 
school.  And  yet  directly  opposite  the  building  toward  the  north 
on  Hall  street  is  an  exceptionally  well-situated  vacant  tract,  ap- 
proximately a  quarter  of  a  block  square,  that  would  meet  the 
needs  of  the  school  admirably.  Steps  should  be  taken  immediate- 
ly to  secure  this  tract  of  land,  or  some  other  convenient  tract, 
for  an  athletic  ground  for  the  pupils  of  this  school. 

By  way  of  reiteration  and  summary,  therefore,  the  most  ur- 
gent need  that  exists  with  reference  to  the  program  or  course  of 
study  in  the  junior  high  schools  is  a  more  extensive  and  freer 
exercise  by  principals  of  the  authority  to  arrange  special  classes 
for  special  types  of  pupils  and  to  administer  the  work  in  the  reg- 
ular courses  with  a  greater  degree  of  attention  to  individual  in- 
terests. That  is,  the  pupil  who  is  out  of  step  with  the  other  boys 
and  girls  in  the  school,  the  pupil  for  whom  the  traditional  classi- 
fication, the  traditional  methods  of  instruction  are  ill-adapted  if 
not  wholly  unsuited,  should,  so  far  as  practicable,  be  treated  on 
an  individual  basis  and  in  the  manner  that  his  peculiar  interests 
necessitate.  This  implies  certainly  the  organization  of  accelerant 
groups  of  pupils,  but  it  much  more  surely  contemplates  the  plan 
of  substitution,  as  occasion  demands,  of  some  or  all  of  the  follow- 
ing courses  for  the  regularly  scheduled  correlative  courses,  name- 
ly :  business  English  for  English  grammar ;  business  or  household 
arithmetic  for  traditional  mathematics ;  history  of  industry,  com- 
merce and  the  domestic  arts  for  traditional  political  history; 
specific  trade  subjects  for  general  courses  in  manual  arts  or  dom- 
estic arts ;  and  courses  in  musical  and  literary  appreciation. 
School  credit  for  out-of-school  work  of  varied  and  suitable  kind 
may  also  wisely  be  granted. 


254 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


The  Senior  High  School. 

Grand  Rapids  has  made  provision  in  three  separate  centers 
for  the  work  of  the  upper  three  grades  of  the  high  school,  albeit 
the  new  South  School  is  as  yet  not  fully  organized.  Each  of 
these  schools  aims  to  be  a  cosmopolitan  high  school.  Each,  how- 
ever, emphasizes  certain  types  of  work  that  the  others  do  not  arid 
in  this  manner  serves  its  particular  constituency  in  an  appropriate 
manner. 

In  the  range  of  subject-matter,  in  the  intensiveness  or  con- 
tinuity of  offerings  and,  in  general,  in  the  results  obtained  little 
more  than  words  of  approval  and  commendation  can  be  spoken. 
There  is  some  doubt  whether  the  most  desirable  forms  of  organi- 
zation and  the  wisest  modes  of  administration  are  always  to  be 
found.  This  section  of  the  report  therefore  deals  principally 
with  these  phases  of  the  work. 

OUTLINE   OF  COURSE   OF  STUDY   IN   THE   GRAND   RAPIDS, 
MICHIGAN,  SENIOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


10-1  Grade 


English  (E  7) 
Public  Speaking  (7) 
Algebra    (M   7)  5 

Ancient  History  (H  5)  or 
European  History  (Long 
Course)  (H  7)  5 

Latin  (L  7)  or  (L  7a)  5 

German  (G  7)  or  (G  7a) 
Agricultural  Botany   (Agr.  7)   5 
Botany  (S  7)  5 

Zoology  (Z  7)  5 

Bookkeeping  (Bk  7)  5 

Dr.  &  Shop  (7)  5 

Freehand  Drawing  (7)  2l/2 

Dom.  Science  (7) 


11-1   Grade 

English  (E  9)  or  (E  9a)  5 

Geometry    (M  9)  5 

European     History     (Lonjj 
Course)    (H  9)    or   Euro- 
pean   History    (Short 
Course)    (H  9a)  5 

Latin  (L  9)  or  (L  9a)  5 

Greek   (Gk  9a) 

German  (G  9)  or  (G  9a)  5 

French  (F  9a)  5 

Spanish  (Sp  9a)  5 

Chemistry  (S  9) 
Commercial  Law  (C  L  9)         5 


10-2    Grade 

English  (E  8)  5 

Public    Speaking    (8)  1 
Ancient    History    (H    6)    or 
European   History   (Long 

Course)   (H  8)  5 

Latin  (L  8)  or  (L  8a)  5 
German  (G  8)  or  (G  8a) 

Agriculture    (Agr.  8)  5 

Botany   (S  8)  5 

Zoology  (Z  8)  5 
Physiology  (Py  8) 

Bookkeeping  (Bk  8)  5 

Dr.  &  Shop   (8)  5 
Design  (Des  8) 

Dom.  Science  (8)  5 

11-2  Grade 

English  (E  10)  or  (E  lOa)  5 

Geometry  (M  10)  5 
European     History     (Long 
Course)    (H    10)    or    Euro- 
pean  History    (Short 

Course)  (E  lOa)  5 

Latin  (L  10)  or  (L  lOa)  5 

Greek  (Gk  lOa)  5 

German  (G  10)  or  (G  lOa)  5 

French  (F  lOa)  5 

Spanish  (Sp  lOa)  5 

Chemistry  (S  10)  5 

Industrial  History  (I  H  10)  5 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 


255 


11-1   Grade— Continued 

Typewriting  &  Stenography 

(  T  &  S  9a)  5 

Draw.  &  Shop  (D  &  S  9) 
Mechanical  Drawing  (9) 
Domestic  Art  (9)  5 

Freehand  Drawing  (Fr  D  9)  2jXj 
Oratory   (P  Spk  9) 

12-1  Grade 

English  (E  11)  or  (E  lla)  5 
Solid  Geometry  (M   11) 

American  History  (H  11)  5 

Latin  (L  11)  or  (L  lla)  5 

Greek  (Gk  lla)  5 

German  (G  11)  or  (G  lla)  5 

French   (F  lla)  5 

Spanish  (Sp  lla)  5 

Physics  (S  11)    '  5 

Economics  (Econ  11)  5 
Typewriting  &  Stenography 

(T  &  S  lla)  5 

Draw.  &  Shop  (D  &  S  11)  5 

Mechanical  Drawing  (11)  5 
Housekeeping,    Domestic 

Science  (D  S  11)',  5 

Debating  (P  Spk  11)  2 


11-2   Grade — Continued 

Typewriting  &  Stenography 

(T  &  S  lOa)  5 

Draw.  &  Shop  (D  &  S  10) 
Mechanical  Drawing  (10) 
Domestic  Art   (10)  5 

Design   (Des   10)  5 

Oratory   (P  Spk  10) 

12-2  Grade 

English  (E  12)  5 
Trigonometry   (M    12) 

American   History   (H   12)  5 

Latin  (L  12)  or  (L  12a)  5 

Greek  (Gk  12a)  5 

German   (G  12)  or  (G  12a)  5 

French   (F  12a)  5 

Spanish   (Sp  12a)  5 

Physics  (S  12)    '  5 

Salesmanship    (S'h'p   12)  5 
Typewriting  &  Stenography 

(  T  &  S  12a)  5 

Draw.  &  Shop  (D  &  S  12)  5 

Mechanical  Drawing  (12)  5 
Home    Economics    (Dom. 

Sci.  12)  5 

Debating  (P  Spk  12)  5 


In  the  specific  requirements  for  graduation,  Grand  Rapids 
has  adopted  the  standard  that  quite  generally  is  to  be  found  in 
Michigan  and  the  Central  Northwest,  namely:  English,  3  years; 
mathematics,  2  years;  history,  1  year;  science,  1  year;  and  voca- 
tional subjects  (manual  training,  domestic  science  and  art,  com- 
mercial branches  and  like  subject),  1  year.  The  prescriptions, 
except  for  the  omission  of  foreign  language  study,  meet  the  speci- 
fic entrance  requirements  of  the  University  of  Michigan  and  at 
the  same  time  insure  to  the  pupils  both  variety  of  subjects  and 
some  degree  of  continuity  of  effort  within  them. 

Several  questions  may  be  raised  in  reference  to  the  work 
here  outlined.  Among  these  are  the  following:  In  an  intensely 
practical  age  like  ours  should  two  years  of  mathematics  in  the 
form  in  which  the  course  in  mathematics  is  organized  for  the  high 
schools  today  be  an  absolute  requirement  for  every  pupil  who 
seeks  the  honor  of  graduation?  In  a  public-school  system 
which  aims  primarily  to  develop  loyal  citizens  of  the  realm  ought 
not  the  prescription  in  history  to  be  specifically  American  His- 
tory and  Civics?  In  a  generation  in  which  science  is  so  funda- 
mental a  subject  in  life  relations  as  it  is  today  should  not  two 
years'  work  in  that  field  of  knowledge  be  expected  of  each  pupil- 
one  year  in  the  biological  and  one  year  in  the  physical  depart- 
ment? Are,  indeed,  three  years'  work  in  English  the  best  dis- 


256  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

tribution  of  time  for  all  )^ouths  irrespective  of  their  interests 
and  life  ambitions? 

These  queries  are  fair  but  cannot  be  answered  dogmatically 
nor  categorically.  Educational  values  depend  for  their  realiza- 
tion upon  many  and  diverse  factors.  The  true  manner  of  curri- 
culum making  is  to  consider  the  especial  needs  and  the  particular 
difficulties  of  the  youths  for  whom  the  work  is  being  planned. 
The  questions  that  are  raised  are  ones,  therefore,  that  can  best 
be  referred  to  the  several  principals  and  their  teaching  staffs  for 
detailed  analyses  and  for  recommendations  to  the  superintendent 
and  the  Board  of  Education.  They  are,  therefore,  so  referred,  with 
the  present  recommendation  that  they  be  not  allowed  to  lie  on 
the  table  indefinitely  but  be  considered  forthwith  on  their  re- 
spective merits. 

A  second  observation  noted  in  reference  to  the  work  of  the 
senior  high  schools  is  that  no  provision  is  made  either  for  the 
definite  segregation  of  boys  and  girls  in  any  of  the  academic  de- 
partments or  for  the  differentiation  of  class  work  among  different 
sections  of  the  same  subject,  except  that  a  long  and  a  short  course 
are  arranged  in  European  History.  The  work  in  the  first  two 
years  of  Latin  and  German,  for  example,  is  precisely  alike  for 
those  who  plan  to  pursue  a  four-year  course  or  more  in  each ;  is 
precisely  the  same  for  pupils  who  seek  to  acquire  such  a  general 
acquaintance  with  the  forms  and  vocabularies  as  will  aid  them 
later,  in  a  practical  way,  in  the  study  of  legal,  medical,  pharma- 
ceutical, chemical,  and  other  technical  branches  involving  for- 
eign language  elements  and  for  those  whose  interests  are  pri- 
marily literary  or  cultural.  In  like  manner  physics  and  chemistry 
are  organized  in  precisely  the  same  form  and  presented  in.  precise- 
ly the  same  manner  for  boys  and  girls,  except  for  incidental  modi- 
fications for  individual  pupils  within  the  class,  for  those  planning 
to  continue  their  education  in  college  and  technical  schools  and 
for  those  who  are  not,  and  for  those  whose  interests  are  primarily 
domestic  or  industrial  and  those  whose  interests  are  aesthetic  and 
general.  Like  conditions  are  to  be  found  in  the  organization  and 
administration  of  other  branches  of  study,  though  perhaps  of- 
fering less  basis  for  criticisms.  In  schools  .enrolling  as  many 
pupils  as  the  schools  of  Grand  Rapids  more  than  one  class  section 
in  each  of  the  several  subjects  may  ordinarily  be  expected  for 
each  year.  There  is,  therefore,  intrinsically  no  apparently  insup- 
erable icason  why  a  differentiation  of  the  work  in  the  several  sec- 
tions might  not  be  provided  and  why  the  specific  needs  of  the 
varying  types  of  students  who  elect  the  courses  or  can  be  pre- 
vailed upon  to  elect  them  may  not  thus  be  more  fully  met.  The 
fact  that  such  flexibility  of  administration  and  such  adaptation  to 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  257 

individual  needs  are  not  more  completely  planned  must  account 
in  no  small  degree  for  the  enormous  decrease  in  the  number  of 
pupils  electing  third  and  fourth-year  foreign  language  study  as 
compared  with  the  elections  of  the  first  and  second  years.  The 
same  body  of  facts  must  also  quite  largely  explain  the  poor  show- 
ing made  by  some  of  the  sciences  in  attracting  numbers  of  pupils 
to  them.  The  following  figures,  taken  from  the  class  rolls  of  the 
second  semester,  February  to  June,  1916,  indicate  what  is  meant. 

A  perusal  of  this  table  arouses  some  interesting  queries. 
Why,  for  example,  are  only  15  pupils  in  the  Central  High  School 
electing  fourth-year  Latin?  What  explanation  is  there  for  the 
fact  that  in  the  entire  system  only  67  pupils  are  pursuing  third- 
year  Latin,  and  only  82  that  are  pursuing  the  subject  longer  than 
two  years  ?  Why  are  only  28  pupils  electing  fourth-year  German, 
particularly  when  third-year  German  classes  are  large?  What 
explanation  is  there  for  the  fact  that  more  than  half  of  all  pupils 
studying  mathematics  and  history  are  enrolled  in  the  first-year 
classes  in  both  subjects?  Why  do  only  10  girls  elect  zoology 
and  only  50  boys  elect  botany?  Why  is  it  that  four  times  as 
many  boys  elect  chemistry  as  do  girls,  and  only  180  pupils,  all 
told,  are  pursuing  the  subject?  Why  is  only  one  girl  at  the 
Union  School  studying  physics  and  only  47  girls  in  the  entire 
school  system? 

It  seems  very  obvious  from  the  above  comparative  statistics 
and  unanswered  queries  that  the  entire  curriculum  of  the  second- 
ary schools  demands  careful  analysis  and  possibly  radical  reor- 
ganization. It  seems  especially  obvious  that  if  foreign  language 
study  in  the  high  schools  is  to  continue  to  make  an  effective  ap- 
peal to  pupils  in  a  practical  age  such  as  ours,  that  the  work  must, 
in  the  earlier  years  particularly,  be  made  much  more  specifically 
varied  and  vital  than  it  has  been.  Indeed  in  cosmopolitan  high 
schools  such  as  Grand  Rapids  maintains  there  is  every  reason 
why  some  of  the  courses  at  least,  and  particularly  of  the  first  and 
second  years,  should  be  given  a  distinctly  practical  or  functioning 
trend.  The  courses  of  the  third  and  fourth  years  may  be  continu- 
ed, if  thought  desirable,  chiefly  as  literary  studies  pure  and 
simple.  It  is  therefore  recommended  that  teachers  of  foreign 
languages  give  respectful  attention  to  the  modern  demands  which 
a  practical  age  is  making  of  them  in  respect  to  the  organization 
and  presentation  of  the  subjects  which  they  teach,  and  so  far  as  it 
is  possible  for  a  body  of  teachers  in  a  single  school  system  to  be 
independent  of  those  forces  of  tradition  which  they  clearly  see  to 
be  ill-suited  to  contemporary  school  procedure,  that  they  recog- 


258  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


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SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  259 

nize  and  re-adapt  foreign  language  study  to  the  spirit  of  those 
demands. 

A  recommendation  of  like  sort  is  also  made  to  teachers  of  all 
the  other  traditional  subjects.  Particularly  is  there  need,  both  on 
general  educational  principles  and  on  the  basis  of  the  facts  ex- 
hibited in  the  table  presented  herewith  (Table  XXXIII),  for 
a  modification  of  the  work  in  some  of  the  science  courses.  House- 
hold chemistry  and  a  course  in  physics  that  shall  deal  primarily 
with  the  common  phenomena  of  daily  life  and  include  only  a  min- 
imum of  the  qualitative  studies  of  technical  and  quasi-technical 
topics  relating  to  specialized  interests  surely  are  the  educational 
rights  of  the  girl  and  the  boy  who  are  seeking  a  secondary-school 
training  which  leads  directly  to  the  home  and  to  business,  just  as 
fully  as  the  more  intensified  courses  arc  the  democratic  high- 
school  birthright  of  the  youths  who  are  planning  a  college  career. 
The  dogma :  "Whatever  best  fits  for  college  also  and  necessarily 
best  fits  for  life"  is  no  longer  accepted  as  good  pedagogy  or  good 
common  sense. 

The  one  branch  of  study  that  appears  to  be  unduly  limited 
in  the  scope  of  its  offerings  in  the  Grand  Rapids  high  schools  is 
music.  This  fact  is  peculiarly  strange  since  the  city  is  the  center 
of  unusual  musical  activity  and  interest.  Choruses,  orchestras, 
glee  clubs,  and  bands  do  exist  in  thriving  fashion  in  each  of  the. 
several  schools,  and  instruction  once  or  twice  a  week  is  given  in 
the  art  of  musical  expression.  But,  except  at  the  Central  High 
School,  and  even  here  largely  in  the  Junior  College,  no  provision 
is  made  for  studies  like  harmony,  history  of  music  and  musical 
appreciation.  Nor,  except  in  rare  instances,  is  school  credit  al- 
lowed for  musical  studies  carried  forward  outside  the  school  sys- 
tem. It  is  therefore  recommended  that  the  authorities  consider 
the  advisability  both  of  extending  the  range  of  offerings  in  music 
in  the  several  schools  and  also  of  accepting  more  freely,  but 
under  guarded  conditions,  a  limited  number  of  credit  points  for 
musical  studies  pursued  privately  by  pupils. 

In  general  Grand  Rapids  has  made  ample  provision  for 
courses  in  manual  training.  A  possible  exception  is  found  at  the 
Central  I  ligh  School.  Here  no  opportunity  is  offered  young  men 
to  acquire  training  in  any  .form  of  metal  work  or  forging,  nor  is 
a  machine  shop  operated.  There  seems  to  be  some  demand  for 
\vork  of  this  kind,  and  the  manual  training  rooms,  as  at  present 
arranged,  permit  the  easy  installation  of  it.  The  authorities  are, 
therefore,  advised  to  consider  the  wisdom  of  the  project  and  to 
provide  for  its  inauguration  if  conditions  warrant  doing  so. 

In  providing  for  the  organization  of  recitation  sections,  Grand 
Rapids  has  in  general  kept  the  size  of  classes  at  an  advantageous 


260  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

'figure.  Of  course  no  absolutely  fixed  number  of  pupils  per  class 
can  be  designated  as  the  invariable  minimum  and  maximum 
standards.  The  North  Central  Association  of  Colleges  and  Sec- 
ondary Schools  has  gone  on  record  as  follows:  "No  recitation 
class  should  enroll  more  than  thirty  pupils."  On  the  other  hand 
local  and  temporary  conditions  often  make  the  organization  of 
classes  with  an  unusually  small  number  of  pupils  entirely  justifi- 

TABLE   XXXIV 

Facts  concerning  the  enrollment  of  students  according  to  subject  in 
three  of  the  Grand  Rapids  High  Schools. 


CENTRAL   HIGH 
Number  of 
SUBJECT                                                     Sections 
English                            50 

SCHOOL 

Number  of     Number  of 
Pupils           Teachers 
1083                      11 
849                         9 
493                        5 
373                        4 
86                        1 
53                        1 
481                        5 
525                        8 
557*                     6 

Average  Size 
of  Class 
21  + 
.       23— 
22  + 
19  + 
17  + 
17  + 
22— 
20+ 
21-4- 

Mathematics                                                              37 

History    22 

German 

19 

5 

Spanish                                

3 

22 

Science                 

26 

Commercial   Work    ..                                               26 

Additional  facts : 

(a)  Only  one   class   in   the   school   enrolls  more   than    30   pupils,   except   certain 
classes  in  commercial  work,  art,  and  manual  training. 

(b)  No  class  enrolls  fewer  than  12  pupils,  while  the  following  number  enroll  be- 
tween 12  and  20  each:     Latin,  3;  Science,  8;  Commercial  Work,  5;  English, 
14;  Mathematics  1;   History,   6;  German,  6.     Total,  43. 

*  The  compilation  omits  one  class  in  spelling,  penmanship,  etc.,  of  312  pupils. 

UNION   HIGH  SCHOOL 

Number  of  Number  of     Number  of     Average  Size 

SUBJECT                                                       Sections  Pupils           Teachers           of  Class 

English    21  496                        6 

Mathematics     19  420                        4 

History 10  217                         2                       22— 

German 10  128 

Latin    4  69                                               17+ 

Science    13     .  271 

Commercial    Work   14     t  293                                               21— 

Additional  facts: 

(a)  Aside  from  the  semi-vocational  classes  three  sections  only  enroll  more  than 

30  pupils, 
(b) 'Eleven  sections  enroll  but  12  or  fewer  students  each.     These  are:     German, 

6 ;    Latin,    1  ;    French,    1  ;    Science,    1  ;    History,    2. 

SOUTH   HIGH  SCHOOL 

Number  of  Number  of     Number  of     Average  Size 

SUBJECT                                                       Sections  Pupils           Teachers           of  Class 

English    22  518                                               2,3+ 

Mathematics     22  630 

History    17  448                        4—                 26+ 

German    5  110 

Latin                                                                              6  108                        1+                  18 

Science""..." 4  1 

Commercial   Work   11  299                                               27  + 

Additional  facts : 

(a)  The    following    sections    with    enrollments    above    30    pupils    each    are    being 
conducted:      English,    2;    Mathematics,    10;    History,    5;    German,    1;    Com- 
mercial Work,  o. 

(b)  Only   three   sections   have   fewer   than   twelve   pupils   enrolled.      These    are; 
German,  1 ;   Latin,  2. 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 


261 


able  from  the  standpoint  of  both  pedagogical  theory  and  econom- 
ic expenditures. 

A  perusal  of  the  daily  schedules  for  the  second  semester, 
1915-16,  of  the  several  high  schools  in  Grand  Rapids  reveals 
some  interesting  facts  relating  to  this  topic. 

It  is  clear  from  the  above  statistics  that  attention  to  certain 
administrative  changes  should  be  given  forthwith.  With  ten 
sections  in  German  at  the  Union  School  enrolling  in  the  aggre- 
gate 128  pupils  and  with  six  of  these  sections  enrolling  fewer  than 
thirteen  pupils  each  (one  enrolling  4,  one  6,  one  10,  and  two  12), 
with  one  section  in  French  enrolling  only  4  persons  and  one  sec- 
tion in  Latin  enrolling  7,  there  is  convincing  evidence  that  the 
supply  of  language  offerings  of  the  kind  that  is  given  is  in  excess 
of  the  demand.  On  the  other  hand,  with  24  sections  at  the  South 
High  School  each  enrolling  more  than  30  pupils  per  section  (and 
eight  of  them  enrolling  more  than  35  pupils  each)  it  is  equally 
clear  that  the  number  of  class  divisions  and  consequently  the 
number  of  teachers  employed  is  inadequate.  The  phenomenal 
growth  of  the  school  during  the  past  year  may  in  part  excuse  a 
situation  which  ought  not  to  be  continued  permanently. 

That  the  training  given  to  pupils  in  the  several  high  schools 
of  Grand  Rapids  is,  generally  speaking,  appropriately  broad  in 
scope  and  acceptably  effective  in  quality  is  evident  in  several 
ways.  The  term  marks  that  are  given  out  by  teachers  do  not 
necessarily  carry  with  them  to  others  the  positive  conviction  of 
infallibility.  However  they  do  have  their  value.  The  accompany- 
ing table  shows  the  distribution  of  grades  as  they  were  issued  by 
the  Union  High  School  in  February,  1916.  The  percentage  of 
failures,  except  in  a  few  subjects,  is  not  unduly  large  or  small. 


TABLE   XXXV 

Percentage  of  pupils  in  17  classes  at  the 
records  of  E,  G,  F,  75,  failures,  conditions, 
semester  ending  January  26,  1916. 


SUBJECT 

Algcbra-1     

Alge]>ra-2     

English- 1    

English-2     

English-3    

English-4 

History-1 

History-2   

General  Science- 1 

Bookkeeping-1    

Bookkeeping-2     

Latin-1     

Latin-2   

German-1  

German-2  

Geometry-3    

Physiology-1     


Union  High   School  with 
and    incompletes    for    the 


75 


Failed 


21.27 

28.36 

34.75 

3.56 

9.22 

2.83 

00.00 

28.12 

31.25 

15.63 

12.50 

12.50 

00.00 

00.00 

00.00 

37.97 

43.41 

6.20 

6.20 

4.66 

1.55 

00.00 

28.86 

36.53 

13.46 

5.77 

9.62 

5.77 

11.86 

44.06 

35.58 

8.48 

00.00 

00.00 

00.00 

14.90 

42.55 

36.16 

2.13 

2.13 

2.13 

00.00 

8.33 

48.33 

21.67 

5.00 

11.66 

3.33 

1.66 

10.71 

46.44 

25.00 

10.71 

00.00 

3.57 

3.57 

13.72 

22.72 

31.81 

4.54 

13.72 

9.09 

4.54 

6.66 

36.67 

23.33 

1..66 

15.00 

00.00 

16.67 

8.57 

31.42    . 

37.14 

00.00 

2.86 

00.00 

20.00 

8.33 

37.50 

33.33 

4.17 

12.50 

4.17 

00.00 

00.00 

25.00 

23.00 

00.00 

50.00 

00.00 

00.00 

11.76 

31.37 

37.26 

5.88 

13.73 

00.00 

00.00 

9.09 

21.21 

42.42 

12.12 

15.16 

00.00 

00.00 

33.33 

16.67 

16.67 

8.33 

00.00 

00.00 

25.00 

8.89 

28.89 

37.78 

8.89 

11.11 

00.00 

4.44 

262  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

Table  XXXVI  shows  the  efficiency  of  the  industrial  train- 
ing of  the  Union  School  as  evidenced  in  the  cases  of  nine  boys 
(only  one  being  a  graduate)  who  during  the  summer  of  1915 
were  given  positions  with  responsible  firms  in  the  city. 

TABLE   XXXVI 

Wages  earned  by  boys  during  the  summer  of  1915,  from  their  ex- 
perience in  Union  School  machine  shop. 

F.   Hesseltine  Given  J^year  on  appren-  Baldwin  &  Tuthill 

ticeship 

H.    DuBois  >15.00  per  week  Fox    Machine    Company. 

A.  Vis  $10.00  per  week  In  his  father's  machine  shop. 

]'.    Coper  $10.00  per  week  Wilmarth  &  Morman 

P.  DeBoer  Given  1  year  on  appren-  Fox  Machine  Company. 

ticeship 

P.   Smith  $15.00  per  week  Wilmarth   &  Morman. 

5.    VanderMale  $13.00  per  week  United   Motor  Truck   Co. 

t.    TJildson  $15.00  per  week  Republic  Truck  Company. 

J.   Rindal  $9.00  per  week  Waddell    Manufacturing    Co. 

A  third  test  of  the  efficiency  and  adaptability  of  a  school  sys- 
tem is  found  in  the  percentage  of  pupils  that  are  retained  in  the 
schools  throughout  the  entire  course  as  planned.  The  following 
table  seeks  to  indicate  the  situation  in  Grand  Rapids. 


TABLE   XXXVII 

Showing  the  number  of  teachers  in  whose  classes  the  elimination  of 
pupils  between  September  1915  and  February  1916  lay  between  certain 
given  percentages. 

Number  of 
Teachers 

Not  Number  of  Teachers  Eliminating 

SCHOOL                              Reporting  0%          1—5%  6—10%    11—15%   Over    15% 

Central     .                                                     1  0                  7  17                19                  4 

Union     6  0                19  9                  4                  1 

South   4  0                15  11                  2                  3 

Junior  11  0                  7  64 

Totals     .,                                           22  0                48  42                31                12 

Percentages     14.2                                30.9  27.1            20.0  7.8 

Median  loss  between  6%  and  10%. 

Table  XXXVII  is  to  be  interpreted  thus:  Seven  teachers  at 
the  Central  High  School  last  semester  (Sept.  1915-Jan.  1916) 
permanently  eliminated  from  their  classes  between  one  and  five 
per  cent  of  their  pupils  ;  seventeen  eliminated  between  six  and  ten 
per  cent ;  nineteen  eliminated  between  eleven  and  fifteen  per  cent ; 
and  four  eliminated  more  than  fifteen  per  cent.  The  median  loss 
is  between  six  and  ten  per  cent,  not  an  unusually  large  ratio  when 
all  eliminating  factors  are  taken  into  account. 

Table  XXXVIII  shows  that  as  compared  with  fourteen  other 
typical  cities  of  -the  United  States  the  percentage  of  pupils  in 
Grand  Rapids  who  are  retained  in  the  school  system  until  the 
twelfth  or  graduating  grade  is  reached  is  that  of  the  median 
group. 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  263 

TABLE  XXXVIII 

Showing  percentage  of  the  total  high-school  enrollment  in  the  gradu- 
ating class  for  Grand  Rapids  and  fourteen  typical  cities. 

High  School     Percentage  of  Pupils 
CITY  Enrollment      in  Graduating  Class 

Paterson,    N.    J : 2400  6.5 

Richmond,    Va 2360  7.4 

Syracuse,    N.    Y.  2838  7.5 

Nashville,    Tenn 1500  9.5 

Fall    River,    Mass 1536  12.0 

Worcester.    Mass   ...  3945  12.0 

Trenton,   N.   J 1384  13.0 

Omaha,  Neh 3000  13.0 

Grand    Rapids,    Mich ; 2254  13.2 

Reading,  Pa 1575  15.0 

New    Bedford.    Conn 1200  15.5 

Columbus,    Ohio    4228  15.8 

New  Haven,  Conn 3300  16.3 

Des   Moines.    Iowa    3115  16.3 

Spokane,    Wash 3500  18.0 

Median:     Approximately    13.5%. 

A  still  further  test  of  the  efficiency  of  the  work  of  the  Grand 
Rapids  high  schools  is  seen  in  the  records  maintained  by  the 
graduates  of  these  schools  during  their  first  semester's  residence 
in  colleges  and  universities.  During  the  past  four  years  Central 
High  School  has  graduated  772  students  and  Union  High  School 
267.  During  these  same  four  years,  387  of  the  graduates  of  the 
Central  High  School  and  80  of  the  graduates  of  the  Union  High 
School  entered  higher  institutions  of  learning.  That  is,  50%  of 
Central  graduates,  and  30%  of  Union  graduates  have  entered 
colleges,  being  44.94%  of  all  graduates  of  the  two  schools.  This 
per  cent  compares  very  favorably  with  those  of  other  school 
systems  as  is  shown  by  the  accompanying  table. 

TABLE   XXXIX 

Showing  the  percentage  of  graduates  who  have  entered  college  dur- 
ing the  last  four  years  from  the  high  schools  of  Grand  Rapids  and  nine 
other  cities. 

Percentage 
CITY  of  Graduates 

New   Haven,   Conn 10% 

Nashville,    Tenn 20% 

Fall  River,   Mass 25% 

Worcester,    Mass 35% 

New   Bedford,   Conn 38% 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich 44.94% 

Des  Moines,  Iowa  45% 

Scranton,    Pa 50% 

Columbus,    Ohio    60% 

Spokane,    Wash 75% 

One  hundred  and  twenty  students  who  have  graduated  from 
the  Grand  Rapids  high  schools  (108  from  Central  and  12  from 
Union)  have  entered  the  University  of  Michigan  during  the  past 
six  years.  The  records  they  have  made  during  the  first  semester 
of  their  freshman  year  is  given  in  the  subjoined  table. 


264 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


TABLE  XL 

Showing  the  academic  record  sustained  by  the  graduates  of  two 
Grand  Rapids  high  schools  during  the  first  semester  of  their  attendance 
at  the  University  of  Michigan. 


Year 
1910 
1911 
1912 
1913 
1914 
1915 


No. 

Entered 
16 
24 
14 
20 
16 
18 


Totals     108 
Percentages 


No. 
Entered 


Year 

1912  1 

1913  0 

1914  4 

1915  7 
Totals       12 
Percentages 
Grand 
Totals     120 
Grand 
Percentages 


CENTRAL 

HIGH  SCHOOL   GRADUATES 

No.  with 

No.  with 

One  Grade 

no  Grade 

or  More 

No.               No 

.  Dis- 

.Below  C 

Below  C 

Warned             mi 

issed 

10 

4 

0 

0 

22 

2 

0 

0 

12 

2 

0 

0 

13 

4 

2 

0 

12 

3 

1 

0 

7 

4 

7 

0 

76 

19 

10 

0 

70.4 

17.5 

9.2 

UNION    HIGH    SCHOOL 

GRADUATES 

No.  with 

No.  with 

One  Grade 

no  Grade 

or  More 

No.               No, 

,  Dis- 

Below  C 

Below  C 

Warned             missed 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

2 

0 

4 

2 

1 

0 

5 

3 

3 

0 

41.6 

25.0 

25.0 

81 

22 

13 

0 

67.5 

18.3 

10,8 

No. 

Withdraw 
2 
0 
0 
1 
0 
0 
3 
2.8 


No. 

Withdraw 
0 
0 

1 
0 

8.3 


3.3 


The  table  reveals  the  fact  that  until  the  fall  of  1915  the  rec- 
ords sustained  at  the  University  were  unusually  good.  Of  the  25 
freshman  who  entered  in  1915,  however,  eight  were  placed  on  the 
"warned"  list  at  the  end  of  the  first  semester.  Whether  these 
figures  indicate  that  scholarship  standards  are  declining  in  Grand 
Rapids  or  are  being  raised  at  the  University,  or  that  principals  in 
recommending  pupils  to  college  authorities  are  not  discriminating 
as  carefully  as  formerly,  or  that  an  unfortunate  combination  of 
circumstances  last  year  produced  the  results  mentioned,  there 
is  of  course  no  positive  means  of  determining.  The  facts  indi- 
cate clearly  that  a  possible  weakness  of  some  sort  exists,  and 
it  is  therefore  incumbent  upon  principals  and  their  teaching 
staffs  to  scrutinize  with  care  succeeding  evidences  of  declining 
standards  of  scholarship  and  take  measures  to  remove  their 
causes. 

Provision  for  meeting  the  social  needs  and  interests  of  the 
pupils  of  the  high  schools  seems  to  be  varied  in  kind  and  ample 
in  extent.  "Democracy's  high  school"  is  an  expression  that  fit- 
tingly characterizes  each  building,  for  democracy  rightly  de- 
mands for  her  subjects  a  well-rounded,  many-sided  education 
and  not  solely  an  intellectual  training.  Such  an  education  is 
being  given  in  Grand  Rapids.  Pupils  are  being  taught  lessons  of 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  265 

individual  initiative  and  independent  leadership,  of  active  and  in- 
terested group  co-operation  and  participation,  and  of  ready  and 
cheerful  submission  to  the  collective  will  when  socially  expressed. 
This  training  is  being  secured  through  various  types  of  student 
collateral  activities — debating  or  forensic  clubs,  student  councils, 
literary  societies,  study  clubs,  dramatic  associations,  musical 
societies,  business  organizations,  journal  clubs,  and  sim- 
ilar agencies.  Moreover,  a  spirit  of  happy,  genial,  enthu- 
siastic activity  prevades  each  school.  Kindly  sympathy 
and  courteous,  frank  intercouse  between  pupils  and  teach- 
ers, and  pupils  and  schoolmates,  were  conditions  that 
were  everywhere  observable.  The  one  insidious  danger  that 
may  perchance  lie  hidden  in  the  whole  social  organization 
of  the  high  school  is  excess.  So  long  as  the  collateral 
activities  are  supervised  and  controlled  as  they  seem  to  be  at 
present  naught,  in  general,  but  advantage  will  emanate  from 
them.  The  gymnasium  erected  for  the  recreational  activities  of 
the  pupils  of  the  Central  High  School  ought,  in  the  interest  of  the 
social  life  of  the  pupils  attending,  no  longer  to  be  diverted  from 
its  original  purpose.  Only  by  the  use  of  properly  arranged  quar- 
ters can  the  social,  athletic  and  recreational  life  of  the  pupils  be 
duly  administered  and  safe-guarded. 

One  further  observation  respecting  the  organization  of  the 
Central  High  School  is  to  be  noted.  This  school  is  planned  to 
accommodate  only  senior  high-school  and  junior-college  students. 
At  the  present  time  fifty-five  ninth-grade  pupils  are  also  enrolled 
in  the  building.  Pupils  of  this  grade  should  be  transferred  as 
soon  as  feasible  to  other  buildings  where  the  work  may  be  organ- 
ized in  close  conformity  to  their  needs.  In  harmony  with  such 
action  it  seems  reasonable  to  suggest  that  the  Board  of  Education 
modify  its  policy  of  basing  the  salaries  of  session-room  teachers 
on  the  number  of  pupils  enrolled.  The  reasons  for  such  a  recom- 
mendation are  clearly  obvious. 

The  Junior  College 

The  educational  theory  upon  which  two  years  advanced  work 
beyond  graduation  from  the  high  school  is  to  be  provided  by  the 
public  school  system  for  the  young  people  aspiring  to  a  full  col- 
lege training,  is  a  sound  educational  theory.  The  provision  for 
this  work  within  a  central  high-school  building  is  also  a  wise 
provision.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  with  facilities  for  securing 
the  first  two  years  of  college  or  university  training  within  the 
school  system  of  one's  own  city  or  town  a  full  college  career  will 
be  made  possible  to  many  a  youth  who  otherwise,  for  economic 
reasons,  would  either  be  deprived  of  the  privilege  entirely  or  else 


266  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

would  have  the  realization  of  it  so  long  deferred  as  to  make  its 
attainment  doubtful,  if  not  altogether  improbable.  The  recorded 
facts  relating  to  the  Junior  College  in  Grand  Rapids  bear  out  this 
contention  in  the  cases  of  several  individuals. 

Moreover,  moral  considerations,  especially  in  so  far  as  they 
concern  youths  of  undeveloped  social  habits  and  those  of  un- 
sophisticated experiences,  argue  to  the  same  end.  For  such,  a 
year  or  two  years  beyond  high-school  graduation  spent  in  their 
own  town  and  school  where  they  are  surrounded  by  familiar  in- 
fluences and  associated  with  teachers  and  companions  who  know 
their  points  of  strength  and  weakness  and  who  can  sympathize 
with  them  in  a  personal  way — for  such  the  junior  college  serves 
a  valuable  end.  Large  colleges  and  universities  situated  at  some 
distance  from  home  are  often  not  the  fittest  places  for  youths  who 
are  unusually  immature,  although  graduates  of  secondary 
schools.  Persons  of  this  class  need  a  little  longer  the  personal 
protecting  care  of  the  parental  surroundings.  Besides,  the  ties  of 
fajiiily  life  make  the  postponement  of  the  severance  thereof  as 
long  as  possible  exceedingly  desirable  to  many  a  parent  and  to 
many  a  child.  When  the  boy  or  girl  has  once  broken  from  the 
family  circle,  to  live  even  temporarily  apart  from  its  direct  in- 
fluence, a  return  thereto  in  any  permanent  way  is  as  nearly  im- 
possible as  it  is  improbable,  and  perhaps  even  undesirable. 

Again,  it  is  good  business  sense  which  dictates  a  plan 
for  educating  as  many  as  possible  of  the  young  men  and  women 
in  their  home  city.  Each  young  man  or  woman  who  secures  his 
collegiate  training  away  from  Grand  Rapids,  thereby,  for  the 
most  part,  deflects  from  the  city's  business  resources  a  sum  of 
money  equal  to  the  cost  of  his  collegiate  training.  The  junior  col- 
lege established  locally  tends  to  keep  such  expenditures  in  the 
channels  of  local  trade. 

But  there  are  also  other  good  practical  reasons  why  the 
junior  college  should  be  perpetuated  in  Grand  Rapids.  The 
new  Central  High  School  building  is  erected  in  the  older  section 
of  the  city.  Its  immediate  constituency  is  composed,  to  a  large 
degree,  of  the  older  families,  families  that  are  reaching  the  point 
of  retirement  from  active  participation  in  business  affairs.  When 
the  children  who  are  at  present  in  the  schools  have  graduated, 
relatively  few  others  from  the  same  families  will  be  entering  the 
schools  to  take  their  places.  Moreover,  each  year  sees  not  only 
a  notable  expansion  in  the  entire  population  of  Grand  Rapids, 
but  the  encroachment  on  the  old  residential  district  of  business 
houses,  apartment  houses  or  institutions  of  a  public  or  quasi- 
public  character.  In  consequence,  if  the  present  building  is  to 
serve  the  city  to  its  fullest  capacity,  it  must  continue  to  exist  as 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  267 

a  school  for  the  entire  city  and  not  ever  be  limited  to  a  school  for 
a  small  section  of  the  city.  A  junior  college  fully  developed 
would  serve  just  such  an  end.  The  trend  of  public  education 
throughout  the  entire  United  States  is  certainly  in  the  direction 
of  including  in  the  public  school  system  the  two  years'  work  that 
is  for  the  most  part,  at  the  present  time,  included  among  the 
offerings  of  institutions  of  higher  learning.  That  is,  the  first  and 
second  year's  work  in  our  universities  will  certainly,  in  some 
cases  at  least,  gradually  be  taken  from  those  institutions  and  be 
incorporated  into  the  local  school  systems,  thereby  making  the 
opportunities  for  the  acquirement  of  the  work  of  these  two  years 
much  more  readily  obtainable  by  all  classes  of  students,  and,  at 
the  same  time,  relieving  the  unweildy  congestion  that  is  now 
being  experienced  in  most  of  £&e  larger  universities.  There  can 
be  no  question  that  the  junior-college  movement  is  upon  us.  It  is 
being  developed  in  all  portions  of  the  land  from  California  to 
Massachusetts.  Grand  Rapids,  therefore,  in  making  provision 
for  such  an  extension  of  its  public-school  work  is  in  entire  har- 
mony with  the  prevailing  theory  and  practice  of  the  best  educa- 
tional movement  of  the  day. 

The  present  Junior  College,  however,  which  was  opened 
in  Grand  Rapids  with  much  eclat  in  1914  and  seemed  for  one 
year  to  be  developing  a  momentum  and  an  influence  that  would 
cause  it  to  be  firmly  established  as  an  integral  part  of  the  Grand 
Rapids  school  system,  is  not  meeting  either  the  ideals  or  the 
conditions  that  can  rightly  be  demanded  of  it.  Instead  of  gaining 
in  strength  and  prestige,  it  is  dwindling  and  waning  in  power  and 
influence.  Instead  of  increasing  in  numbers  of  students,  it  is 
actually  diminishing  in  numbers.  This  year  it  is  very  obviously 
passing  through  a  critical  period.  Twelve  months  ago  it  enrolled 
42  students.  This  year  it  has  attained  a  maximum  of  only  37 
members  and  these  have  been  depleted  in  numbers  for  one  reason 
or  another,  until  at  present  (April,  1916),  only  22  are  in  actual 
attendance.  The  size  of  classes  is  in  consequence  necessarily 
small — too  small,  indeed,  in  several  cases,  to  make  the  continu- 
ance economically  justifiable  to  the  taxpayers.  It  is  undoubtedly 
true  that  small  sections  must  for  sometime  be  the  rule  rather 
than  the  exception  in  any  newly  established  junior  college  which 
the  city  might  provide.  Moreover,  there  is  both  psychological 
and  practical  justification  for  having  classes  in  college  work  con- 
siderably smaller  than  those  in  secondary  work.  There  is,  how- 
ever, a  minimum  below  which  the  public-school  system  may  not 
continue  to  organize  courses.  The  following  figures  give  the  pre- 
sent enrollment  in  the  several  classes : 

English:  now  enrolled,  17;  last  semester,  22.    History:  now 


268  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  -RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

enrolled,  9 ;  last  semester,  13.  German  :  now  enrolled,  8 ;  last  sem- 
ester, 9.  Mathematics:  now  enrolled,  7;  last  semester,  12.  Bio- 
logy :  now  enrolled,  8 ;  last  semester,  8.  Physics :  now  enrolled,  6 ; 
last  semester,  8.  Moreover,  when  we  consider  that,  as  the  work 
is  organized  in  Grand  Rapids,  the  regular  teachers  of  the  high 
school  are  given  charge  of  the  work  in  the  Junior  College  and 
therefore  excused  from  two  class  periods  in  the  high  school  for 
each  class  period  which  is  carried  on  in  the  Junior  College,  it 
again  is  perfectly  apparent  that  economic  reasons  will  demand 
that  class  sections  shall  not  be  unduly  small. 

The  Junior  College  in  Grand  Rapids  is  in  very  grave  danger 
of  dying  a  premature  death.  As  already  indicated  above,  it  is 
an  institution  that  is  altogether  too  worthy  of  a  place  in  our 
present-day  school  system  to  be  allowed  to  die  out.  In  its  estab- 
lishment two  years  ago,  the  Board  of  Education  of  Grand  Rapids 
put  itself  in  the  forefront  of  educational  progressiveness  in  the 
state  of  Michigan,  not  to  say  in  a  goodly  portion  of  the  United 
States.  To  allow  the  undertaking  as  it  has  been  inaugurated,  to 
pass  into  oblivion,  would  be  a  calamity  for  Grand  Rapids,  for  the 
state  of  Michigan  and  for  the  cause  of  progressive  education  in 
general. 

Wherein,  then,  lie  the  elements  of  weakness  and  of  mena- 
cing dangers,  and  what  agencies  and  means  of  correction  are 
possible?  First,  it  should  be  said,  the  trouble  surely  aoes  not 
center  in  the  teaching  staff  which  has  been  chosen  to  conduct  the 
work  of  instruction.  These  persons  have  been  selected  with  dis- 
crimination. They  are  eminently  fitted  for  the  several  positions 
which  they  occupy.  Indeed,  it  is  doubtless  fair  to  allege  that  be- 
cause of  their  maturity  of  years,  their  somewhat  extended  periods 
of  teaching  experience,  their  personal  interest  in  the  young  peo- 
ple under  their  tuition,  and  their  keen  sense  of  responsibility 
for  the  successful  operation  of  the  new  plan,  the  teachers 
who  are  charged  with  the  conduct  of  the  junior  college  work  in 
Grand  Rapids  are-actully  giving  to  the  young  people  under  their 
charge  a  collegiate  training  that  is  superior  to  what  could  ordin- 
arily be  expected  from  the  younger  and  ultra-academic  instruc- 
tors into  whose  classes  freshmen  students  are  commonly  placed 
on  their  entrance  into  our  larger  colleges  and  universities. 

That  the  intellectual  training  given  in  the  Grand  Rapids 
Junior  College  is  fully  up  to  the  standards  set  by  the  older  col- 
leges with  their  four-year  courses  is  fully  evidenced  by  the  fol- 
lowing statistics  gathered  with  reference  to  such  students  as  had 
completed  one  year's  work  in  the  Grand  Rapids  Junior  College 
in  1914-15,  and  have  during  the  current  year,  1915-16,  continued 
their  collegiate  careers  in  other  institutions  of  higher  learning. 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  269 

Sixteen  students  are  included  in  this  group,  the  different  colleges 
attended  by  them  being1  seven.  The  distribution  of  these  students 
is  as  follows:  Oberlin,  one;  Notre  Dame,  one;  Northwestern, 
one;  Wisconsin,  two;  University  of  Michigan,  (engineering) 
two;  University  of  Michigan,  (literary),  eight. 

By  comparing  the  grades  or  marks  accorded  to  these  sixteen 
students  by  the  teachers  in  the  Junior  College  in  June,  1915,  with 
the  grades  or  marks  obtained  by  them  at  the  close  of  their  first 
semester's  work  in  the  several  older  colleges  attended  by  them 
in  February,  1916,  the  following  table  is  derived : 

TABLE  XLI 

Comparison  by  subjects  of  the  grades  given  sixteen  students  at  the 
Grand  Rapids  Junior  College  and  at  various  senior-college  institutions. 

Junior  College  Grades  Grades  Given  by  Other  Colleges 

A's     B's     C's     D's     E's     Total  A's     B's     C's     D's     E's     Total 

Rhetoric    2590016  14300  8 

Mathematics     12241          10  01200  3 

History    41301  9  26000  8 

Biology    063009  010001 

Physics    220105  010001 

German    22501          10  54100         10 

Total 11       18       22         5         3         59  8       17         6         0         0         31 

The  above  table  shows  that  no  grade  below  C  was  given  to 
any  junior-college  pupils  of  Grand  Rapids  in  any  senior  college 
last  semester  (so  far  as  pupils  continued  junior-college  work  in 
the  senior  college),  that  only  six  pupils  received  a  grade  of  C, 
while  17  received  a  grade  of  B,  and  8  a  grade  of  A. 

By  comparing  the  changes  in  position  of  pupils  in  the  two 
types  of  institutions — junior  college  and  senior  college — another 
check  on  the  work  of  the  junior  college  is  secured  and  interesting 
facts  are  revealed.  Table  XLII  gives  these  items.  Here  it  is 
seen  that  only  four  persons  in  senior  colleges  fell  below  the 
grades  given  in  the  junior  college,  fourteen  received  precisely 
the  same  grades,  while  eleven  gained  grades  above  those  given 
in  the  junior  college.  This  is  a  remarkably  good  record. 

TABLE  XLII 

Relative  standing  of  students  who  continued  in  other  colleges  the 
same  subjects  they  pursued  in  the  Grand  Rapids  Junior  College. 

Falling  Below  Junior  Having  Same  Grade  Having  a  Higher 

College  Grade  in  as  in  Junior  Grade  Than  in 

SUBJECTS                               Same  Subject  College  Junior  College 

Rhetoric    2  5  1 

Mathematics  002 

History    1  4 

Biology    0  1  -0 

Physics    1  .0  0 

German    0  4 

Total    4  14  11 


270  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

If  the  grades  obtained  by  students  in  subjects  not  pursued 
in  the  junior  college  but  first  elected  in  senior  colleges  be  con- 
sidered, substantiating  evidence  of  the  high  quality  of  work  done 
in  the  junior  college  is  obtained.  Table  XLIII  shows  the  figures. 
Here  it  is  noted  that  of  the  twenty-six  grades  given  out,  seven 
are  A's,  five  are  B's,  fourteen  are  C's,  and  not  one  is  below  C. 
That  is,  approximately  50%  of  the  grades  are  what  colleges  usual- 
ly regard  as  excellent  and  superior  and  none  is  below  'good. 

TABLE  XLIII 

Grades  obtained  by  Grand  Rapids  Junior  College   students  in  sub- 
jects not  begun  in  the  Junior  College. 


SUBJECT 
Chemistry 

French  

Spanish    .... 

Latin    

Philosophy 

Kconomics 

Astronomy 

Totals 


A's 

0 
4 
0 
1 
0 
2 
0 
7 


B's 

0 
1 

0 
0 
2 
0 
2 
5 


C's 

3 

2 

2 

0 

6 

1 

0 
14 


D's 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 


Total 
3 

7 
2 

1 
8 
3 
2 
26 


By  combining  all   the  grades   secured — both   in   the  junior 
college  and  in  the  various  senior  colleges — an  even  better  show- 


15  Z 


DIAGRAM   LXIII — Distribution  of  grades  of  Grand  Rapids  Junior  College  students  in 
Junior  College  and  in  Senior  College. 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  271 

ing  is  made  for  the  Grand  Rapids  students.  Table  XLIV  and 
Diagram  LXIII  make  this  clear.  Of  the  total  number  of  grades 
(67)  secured  in  Senior  Colleges,  forty-three,  or  more  than  64.17% 
are  superior  grades,  and  only  two,  or  less  than  3%  are  below  C, 
or  what  is  regarded  as  a  normally  satisfactory  grade. 

TABLE  XLIV 

Distribution  of  grades  among  the  sixteen  Grand  Rapids  Junior 
College  students  entering  Senior  Colleges  in  1915. 

A's         B's         C's         D's         E's         Total 

Grades  given  in  Grand  Rapids  Junior  College  11  19  23  5  4  62 

Grades  given  in   Senior  Colleges 20  23  22  2  0  67 

There  is  only  one  conclusion  that  can  be  drawn  from  the 
above  facts  and  figures,  namely,  that  the  Grand  Rapids  Junior 
College  during  its  first  year  of  existence  did  train  students,  in- 
tellectually and  academically  speaking  at  least,  to  a  high  degree 
of  proficiency.  There  is  no  reason  to  question  but  that  it  is 
doing  similar  work  at  present. 

On  the  other  hand,  an  analysis  of  the  concrete  situation  and 
an  observation  of  the  junior  college  actually  at  work  reveals 
counter-active  forces  in  operation.  There  is  little  opportunity 
for,  or  little  realization  of,  college  spirit — that  indefinable  some- 
thing that  leaves  its  abiding  influence  on  persons  even  when  the 
effects  of  classroom  activities  have  seemingly  passed  away  for- 
ever. The  enrollment  in  the  junior  college  is  too  limited,  recita- 
tion sections  are  too  small,  collegiate  interests  and  activities  are 
too  curtailed  to  produce  the  most  friendly  emulation  and  the 
most  wholesome  stimulation  for  young  people.  Members  are 
too  few  to  develop  an  esprit  de  corps  of  their  own.  Surroundings 
are  too  impersonal  to  lend  themselves  to  a  feeling  of  proprietor- 
ship, even  of  partnership.  There  is  little  or  nothing  that  the 
junior  college  students  can  look  upon  as  their  own — as  constitu- 
ting a  constructive  element  in  their  group  taken  as  a  group.  Not 
only  are  they  housed  in  the  same  building  with  the  high-school 
pupils,  but  their  recitation  work  is  carried  on  in  the  same  class- 
rooms and  with  the  same  equipment  as  that  provided  the  high- 
school  pupils.  They  are  denied  not  only  a  segregated  section  of 
the  building,  but  also  any  room  that  they  may  regard  as  their 
own  session  or  rest-room.  No  consultation  rooms  are  available 
'  for  them ;  no  separated  portion  of  the  library  is  devoted  to  them 
for  study  or  for  reference  work ;  no  assembly  meetings  are  possi- 
ble for  them.  Nor  are  there  facilities  for  gymnastics,  athletics, 
literary  and  social  activities  to  inspire  them  with  a  sense  of 
homogeneity  of  thought  and  action.  In  short,  the  junior-college 
students  are  at  present,  at  least  to  a  large  degree,  an  unarticula- 


272  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

tive  group  of  young  people,  without  consistency  of  organization, 
without  definiteness  of  purpose,  without  group  consciousness, 
and  without  the  material  surroundings  and  equipment  that  will 
tend  to  produce  these  essential  elements  readily.  Values  are  not 
always  determinable  in  quantitative  terms,  and  it  is  altogether 
probable  that  the  American  colleges  have  recently  committed 
the  impious  sin  of  the  worship  of  numbers  of  students  they  can 
enroll.  Nevertheless,  there  can  be  no  true  college  spirit,  and 
hence  no  true  college,  without  a  student  body  of  fairly  respect- 
able size.  What  the  minimum  is  none  can  say  with  positiveness. 
It  seems  reasonable  to  state,  however,  that  a  junior  college  at- 
tached to  the  public  school  system  in  Grand  Rapids  cannot  be 
economically  conducted  with  fewer  than  one  hundred  persons 
enrolled.  For  a  year  or  two  at  the  outset  of  the  undertaking,  a 
smaller  number  may  be  sufficient  to  justify  the  experiment,  but 
surely  an  ideal  of  two  or  four  hundred  students  enrolled  must  be 
expected  for  the  not  too  remote  future. 

It  should,  therefore,  be  the  first  business  of  the  school  au- 
thorities to  secure  an  attendance  in  the  junior  college  to  warrant 
not  only  the  continuance  of  the  college,  but  its  gradual  expansion. 
This  is  an  age  of  advertising — of  letting  prospective  interested 
people  know  what  is  provided  for  their  needs  and  of  presenting 
the  matter  to  them  in  an  attractive,  appealing  way.  A  cam- 
paign of  dignified,  judicious  advertising  of  the  Junior  college,  not 
only  among  the  citizens  of  Grand  Rapids,  but  also  among  the 
residents  of  suburban  towns  lying  within  the  western  section  of 
Michigan,  may  well  prove  a  wise  venture. 

Secondly,  in  order  to  make  the  college  truly  attractive,  the 
Board  of  Education  may  very  fittingly  consider,  at  least  the  wis- 
dom of  providing  for  it  either  a  definitely  segregated  portion 
of  the  Central  building  or  of  some  other  building,  and  of  en- 
couraging in  all  appropriate  ways  the  development  of  a  true 
college  atmosphere  and  a  true  college  organization. 

A  third  factor  enters  into  the  future  development,  organiza- 
tion, and  administration  of  the  Junior  College  in  Grand  Rapids. 
This  is  the  attitude  of  the  senior  college  towards  it,  and  the  arti- 
culation that  can  be  secured  between  the  junior  college  on  the  one 
hand  and  the  senior  colleges  on  the  other.  In  the  nature  of  the 
case,  the  University  of  Michigan  is  the  chief  standardizing  educa- 
tional agency  in  the  state.  And  it  ought  so  to  be.  Not  only  is  it  an 
integral  part  of  our  public  school  system,  but  it  has,  from  the 
earliest  days  to  the  present,  been  generally  recognized  as  the 
head  and  crown  of  that  system.  In  consequence  it  would  be  ex- 
tremely unfortunate,  not  to  say  dangerous  and  disastrous,  for 
the  Junior  College  in  Grand  Rapids  to  grow  up  entirely  unrelated 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  273 

I 

and  unarticulatcd  with  the  older  and  more  complete  institution, 
the  University  of  Michigan.  And  yet,  right  at  this  point  is  the 
crux  of  much  of  the  difficulty  respecting  economical  adminis- 
tration of  the  junior  college.  The  University  has  approved  the 
experiment  Grand  Rapids  is  making,  and  has  agreed  to  take  the 
students  who  may  be  trained  in  the  junior  college  and  allow  them 
credit,  hour  for  hour,  for  work  pursued  therein.  It  has,  however, 
steadfastly  insisted  that  the  junior-college  work  shall  not  only  be 
taught  by  teachers  of  pronounced  superior  academic  training 
(ultimately  to  be  guaranteed  by  the  collegiate  degree  of  Master 
of  Arts  or  Doctor  of  Philosophy),  but  also  that  the  junior-college 
classes  shall  be  segregated  absolutely  from  the  classes  made 
available  in  the  high  school.  In  other  words,  the  University  has 
insisted  that  precisely  the  same  entrance  requirements  shall  be 
enforced  in  the  Junior  College  as  would  be  exercised  at  the 
University  itself  and  that  none  but  high-school  graduates,  having 
fifteen  units  of  approved  work,  shall  be  admitted  to  junior  col- 
lege work.  In  consequence  in  several  cases  small  classes  cover- 
ing precisely  the  same  field  of  work,  though  possibly  in  a  slightly 
different  manner,  have  been  carried  simultaneously  by  the  same 
teacher — one  class  being  scheduled  as  junior-college  \vork;  the 
other  as  high-school  work.  This  situation  is  noticeable  particu- 
larly in  third-year  German,  in  biology,  and  in  history.  Moreover, 
since  the  Board  of  Education  has  prescribed  a  tuition  fee  of  sixty 
dollars  for  junior  college  work,  whereas  similar  courses  may  be 
elected  in  the  high  school  without  any  tuition  fee  whatever,  it  has 
resulted  in  a  goodly  number  of  young  people  remaining  in  school 
as  graduate  high-school  students,  rather  than  as  junior  college 
students,  albeit  the  University  allows  but  half  credit  for  any  dis- 
tinctively high-school  work  of  that  kind. 

It  not  infrequently  happens,  also,  that  an  individual  pupil  in 
the  high  school  completes  the  required  work  for  graduation  at 
the  end  of  the  first  semester,  but,  for  personal  reasons,  defers  tak- 
ing the  diploma  until  the  June  commencement  time.  Under  the 
present  arrangements,  such  a  person  is  denied  the  privileges  of 
the  junior  college.  And,  again,  it  occasonally  happens  that  a  sen- 
ior in  the  high  schpol  has  completed  thirteen  or  fourteen  of  the 
required  fifteen  units,  and  has  included  in  these  credits  all  of  the 
specific  prerequisites  for  admission  to  certain  junior-college 
courses.  For  example,  attention  was  called  to  several  cases  in 
which  seniors  had  already  to  their  credit  four  units  in  English, 
or  two  units  in  German,  or  one  unit  in  history,  or  science,  but 
who,  under  the  rules,  were  kept  from  the  junior-college  classes 
of  the  same  line  of  work.  To  admit  them  to  junior-college  work 
under  the  circumstances,  would,  it  is  true,  be  the  equivalent  of 


274  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

• 

admitting  students  with  academic  conditions — a  practice  at  pre- 
sent condemned  by  most  standard  institutions  of  higher  learning. 

Nevertheless,  while  the  junior-college  is  in  its  infancy,  it  is 
the  part  of  justice,  not  to  say  wisdom,  to  surround  it  with  all 
the  best  possible  conditions  of  growth.  Standards  of  scholarship 
must  be  maintained,  but  the  employment  of  good  common  sense 
in  the  administration  of  the  agencies  designed  to  secure  such 
standards  must  also  be  employed.  Until  the  number  of  students 
enrolled  in  the  junior  college  makes  possible  not  alone  the  organ- 
ization of  fairly  good-sized  sections  for  classroom  instruction  in 
the  various  subjects  offered,  but  also  the  differentiation  of  sec- 
tions to  meet  the  multiplicity  of  needs  that  inevitably  develop 
under  the  elective  system  in  schools,  considerable  freedom  seem- 
ingly should  be  accorded  the  principal  and  the  teachers  in  admin- 
istering the  work  they  seek  to  offer.  Ultimately  it  should  not  be 
necessary  or  possible  to  place  in  a  class  in  junior-college  German 
I  (third  year  German)  a  student  who  has  already  completed 
four  years  of  work  in  German  in  the  high  school ;  nor  to  group 
together  in  junior-college  Mathematics  I,  those  who  have  had 
in  high  school  two  years,  two  and  a  half  years,  and  three  years 
of  mathematics  respectively;  nor  to  admit  to  junior-college  His- 
tory I,  those  who  have  had  in  high  school  one  year's  work,  two 
years'  work,  three  years'  work,  and  even  four  years'  work  in  the 
subject.  And  yet  this  is  done  at  present  in  the  Junior  College. 

Two  of  the  present  class  in  Junior-College  German  (third- 
year  German)  have  had  four  years'  work  in  German  in  the  high 
school;  four  of  the  nine  at  present  enrolled  in  junior-college 
Mediaeval  and  Modern  European  History  had  had  European  His- 
tory in  the  high  school ;  three  of  the  eight  members  of  the  junior- 
college  Zoology  class  had  carried  zoology  in  the  high  school ; 
while  of  the  twelve  who  started  junior-college  mathematics  last 
semester,  five  had  completed  seven  semesters  of  high-school 
mathematics,  three  had  completed  six  semesters  and  four  had 
completed  five  semesters.  Yet  all  of  these  persons  were  pursuing 
junior-college  work  in  classes  that  also  enrolled  others  whose 
high-school  preparation  in  the  several  fields  was  very  much  less 
than  theirs. 

The  Junior  College,  however,  is  offending  in  this  respect  not 
one  whit  more  flagrantly  than  is  the  University  of  Michigan, 
which  sets  the  standards.  Indeed,  at  the  University,  the  classi- 
fication of  students  in  their  work  is  in  many  respects  even  more 
loosely  done,  and  is  done  on  a  much  larger  scale. 

The  above  conditions  are  set  forth  not  for  the  sake  of  con- 
demning the  junior-college  organization,  and  surely  not  for  the 
sake  of  giving  unqualified  approval  to  the  methods  in  vogue  at 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  275 

the  University.  They  are  presented  in  order  to  show  that  in 
both  institutions  the  concrete,  practical  exigencies  of  circum- 
stances must  be  taken  into  account.  Particularly  in  a  newly  es- 
tablished school  like  the  Grand  Rapids  Junior  College,  slight  var- 
iations from  fixed  standards  should  be  permitted  without  ques- 
tioning, especially  when  it  can  be  shown  that  such  variations  are 
merely  technical  in  character  and  conduce  in  no  apparent 
manner  to  weakening  the  efficiency  of  the  organization  and  in- 
struction. Here,  as  elsewhere,  the  letter  of  the  law  killeth,  while 
the  observance  of  the  spirit  tends  to  keep  alive  and  to  develop  the 
whole. 

In  view  of  the  observations  made  and  the  comments  offered 
above,  the  following  recommendations  are  respectfully  presented 
to  the  Board  of  Education  for  their  consideration : 

First,  that  the  Junior  College  in  connection  with  the  public 
school  system  of  the  city  be  continued  on  a  permanent  founda- 
tion, be  liberally  supported  financially  and  morally,  and  be  per- 
mitted to  develop  unrestrained  by  any  artificial  or  technical  forms 
of  organization  and  administration. 

Second,  that  the  charge  for  tuition  within  the  college  be  re- 
duced to  a  sum  no  greater  at  least  than  that  required  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan,  and  that  consideration  be  given  to  the  plan 
of  eliminating,  at  a  very  early  date,  all  tuition  fees  whatever  for 
residents  of  Grand  Rapids,  thereby  making  the  junior-college 
work  as  available  and  free  as  high-school  work  is  at  present. 

Third,  that  an  understanding  be  brought  about  with  the 
University  of  Michigan  whereby  a  somewhat  greater  liberality 
and  flexibility  of  organization  of  class  work  may  be  secured,  to 
the  end  that  a  truer  classification  of  pupils  pursuing  work  in  spe- 
cified fields  may  be  made,  a  more  economical  organization  of  reci- 
tation sections  may  be  obtained,  a  greater  freedom  for  the  ad- 
justment of  individual  pupils'  interests  and  needs  may  be  granted, 
and  an  enhanced  stimulation  and  esprit  de  corps  within  the  col- 
legiate work  may  be  produced. 

Fourth,  that,  as  soon  as  feasible,  recitation  rooms,  library 
facilities,  office  and  consultation  quarters,  separate  and  distinct 
from  those  of  the  high  school,  be  provided. 

Fifth,  that  as  soon  as  sufficient  numbers  of  students  can  be 
enrolled,  a  second  year  of  offerings  be  added  to  the  program  of 
studies  or  the  curriculum. 

Sixth,  that  a  dignified  campaign  of  advertising  be  carried  on 
throughout  the  city  and  state,  in  order  that  the  public  may  be  ac- 
quainted more  fully  with  the  aims,  scope,  and  organization  of  the 
Junior  College. 


276  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

The  Teachers 

There  are  one  hundred  fifty-five  teachers  engaged  in  carry- 
ing on  the  work  of  public  secondary  education  in  Grand  Rapids. 
These  are  distributed  among  the  four  schools  as  follows :  Cen- 
tral, 48;  Union,  39;  South,  35;  Junior,  33.  These  teachers  have 
under  their  tuition  2,254  pupils,  or  an  average  of  14.54  per 
teacher.  The  usual  number  of  weekly  recitation  periods  assigned 
each  person  is  five,  but  teachers  conducting  classes  in  the  junior 
college  are  given  only  four  high-school  sections.  Teachers  of 
the  manual  and  commercial  branches  and  other  work  requiring 
little  attention  outside  of  class  hours  are  not  infrequently  as- 
signed six  recitation  periods.  The  administrative  policies  that 
are  operating  in  the  arrangements  here  noted  are  in  accord  with 
the  best  educational  theory  of  the  day  and  call  for  no  comments. 

In  establishing  the  academic  qualifications  for  teachers 
Grand  Rapids  has  wisely  set  the  standards  at  college  graduation 
and  a  minimum  amount  of  teaching  experience  for  all  except 
teachers  of  the  so-called  non-academic  subjects.  The  standard 
however  is  not  being  administered  retroactively  so  as  to  elimi- 
nate from  the  system  teachers  of  long  tenure  who  entered  upon 
their  work  under  conditions  somewhat  different  from  those 
found  today,  and  it  ought  not  to  be  so  administered.  In  the 
future,  though,  it  is  to  be  the  policy,  as  avowed  by  the  school 
authorities  at  present  in  charge  of  the  work,  to  enforce  the  higher 
standards  of  training  in  the  appointment  of  all  new  teachers  of 
academic  branches  both  in  the  junior  high  schools  and  in  the 
senior  high  schools.  As  in  the  past,  teachers  of  non-academic 
subjects  will  be  required  to  possess  evidences  of  such  special 
training  and  fitness  as  the  several  lines  of  work  may  demand. 
The  new  schedule  of  salaries  recently  adopted  by  the  Board 
of  Education  indicates  clearly  that  the  intent  is  to  pay  teachers 
sufficiently  well  to  justify  the  higher  professional  requirements 
that  are  being  set.  Particularly  worthy  of  commendation  is  the 
rare,  though  thoroughly  equitable,  policy  recently  made  effective 
in  Grand  Rapids  in  placing  teachers  of  the  academic  branches  in 
the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  on  precisely  the  same  footing, 
respecting  training  and  salary  schedules,  as  the  teachers  of 
similar  subjects  in  the  upper  grades  of  the  high  school.  The 
departmentalization  of  the  work  of  these  grades  and  the  organi- 
zation of  them  as  a  part  of  the  secondary  school  system,  make 
it  as  essential  that  teachers  who  are  assigned  to  them  shall  be  as 
thoroughly  prepared  in  the  subjects  they  are  to  teach  and  as 
fully  conversant  with  the  purposes,  problems,  and  procedures 
of  secondary  education  as  it  is  for  teachers  of  the  upper  high- 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  277 

school  grades.  Indeed  there  is  well-established  theory  for  de- 
manding" that  teachers  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  shall  in 
every  respect  be  among  the  strongest  teachers  of  the  entire 
school  system.  The  youths  attending  these  two  grades  are 
usually  in  the  most  restless,  mischievous,  active,  curious,  and 
alert  period  of  school  life.  None  but  teachers  of  pronounced 
forcefulness  of  personality  and  ripeness  of  sympathy  can  deal 
with  them  and  their  interests  successfully.  As  stated  elsewhere 
in  this  report  it  is  precisely  the  recognition  by  educators  of  the 
peculiar  physical,  mental,  and  social  traits  of  boys  and  girl- 
of  the  late  preadolescent  age  that  has  led  to  the  reorganization 
of  the  traditional  school  system  to  conform  to  the  demand.  But 
no  reorganization  of  system  wtihout  a  corresponding  reshaping 
of  the  standards  set  for  the  administration  of  the  system  will 
produce  the  desired  results.  It  is  the  teacher,  after  all,  who  gives 
character  and  form  to  any  grade  or  any  school. 

In  view  of  the  newer  pedagogy  and  the  newer  psychology 
it  is  certainly  reasonable  to  expect  and  demand  that  the  teachers 
who  are  henceforth  placed  in  charge  of  youths  in  the  exacting 
transition  period  marked  by  the  junior  high-school  grades  shall 
possess  the  following  qualifications  at  least:  unusual  charm  of 
personality  and  address,  broad  sympathies  gained  through  much 
contact  with  the  world  at  large  and  young  people  in  general, 
several  years  of  active  teaching  experience,  and  academic  train- 
ing equivalent  to  that  denoted  by  the  Bachelor's  degree.  In 
short,  manly  men  and  womanly  women  of  superior  natural  and 
acquired  traits  of  character  should  alone  be  given  positions  in 
these  grades,  and  their  salaries  should  be  commensurate  with 
the  qualifications  demanded.  Grand  Rapids  is  therefore  taking 
the  wise  course  in  setting  for  teachers  of  these  grades  academic 
requirements  equal  to  those  set  for  teachers  of  the  higher  grades. 
It  ought  very  justly  to  set  even  higher  standards. 

Table  XLV  shows  the  training,  teaching  experience  and 
the  salary  schedule  of  high-school  teachers  at  present  in  the 
school  system  of  Grand  Rapids. 

Diagrams  LXIV,  LXV,  and  LXVI  show  the  same  facts  in  a 
different  form.  From  the  table  and  diagrams  it  is  seen  that  more 
than  fifty  per  cent  of  the  teachers  in  the  junior  and  senior  high 
schools  hold  college  degrees  and  that  more  than  forty  per  cent 
have  received  normal-school  or  other  special  training.  In  like 
manner  the  statistics  reveal  the  fact  that  the  largest  number  of 
teachers  are  those  of  considerable  school  experience,  more  than 
fifty  per  cent  having  been  engaged  in  the  work  in  excess  of  ten 
years.  Salaries,  too,  are  reasonably  worthy  as  salaries  go,  more 


278 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


than  fifty  per  cent  of  all  the  teachers  being  paid  in  excess  of  a 
thousand  dollars  per  year.  Table  XLVL  and  Diagram  LXVII 
show  how  the  ranges  of  salaries  in  Grand  Rapids  compare  with 
those  in  eleven  other  cities  of  the  country. 

TABLE  XLV 

Record  for  1915-16  of  the  academic  training,  teaching  experience  and 
salaries  of  high-school  teachers  in  the  high  schools  of  Grand   Rapids. 


TRAINING 


SCHOOLS 
Central 

Total 
No.  of  Teachers 
j             48 

With 
A.  B.  Degree 
34 

Union 

39 

15 

South    

35 

18 

Junior 

33 

13 

Totals     .. 

155 

80 

With  Normal  School 

With  or  Special  Aca- 

A.  M.  Degree  demic  Training 

4  15 

1  16 

0  16 

3  16 

8  63 


4  teachers  did   not   report. 


Under  5   Years 

5 

6 

13 

Junior 10 

Totals     34 

1    teacher   did   not   report. 


SCHOOLS 

Central     

Union     

South    .. 


EXPERIENCE 

5-10  Years 

5 
11 

9 
14 
39 


11-20  Years         Over  20  Years 


SALARY 


SCHOOLS 
Central 

Under  $750 
0 

$750- 
$850 
1 

Union     

4 

9 

South     

3 

5 

4 

11 

Totals     . 

11 

26 

$851- 

$1001- 

$1201- 

$1000 

$1200 

$1500 

Over  $1500 

2 

9 

19 

16 

6 

9 

7 

4 

7 

12 

5 

2 

9 

4 

2 

1 

24 

34 

33 

23 

4  teachers  did  not  report. 


DIAGRAM    LXIV — Showing   training   of    high-school    teachers    in    Grand    Rapids. 


280  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


DIAGRAM    LXV — Showing   teaching   experience,    in   years,    of   teachers   in   the   several 
high   schools   of   Grand   Rapids. 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 


DIAGRAM    LXVI — Showing   range    of    salaries    in    the    several    high    schools    of    Grand 
Rapids,   the  average  range  and  range   for  the  entire   city. 


CITY 

Omaha 

Range  in 
Elementary  School 
600-1000 

Syracuse     

400-  800 

Des  Moines 

-  950 

Paterson 

475-1000 

Grand    Rapids 

500-1000 

Nashville    

400-  700 

Spokane    ... 

600-1000 

Toledo 

New  Haven 

450-  850 

New    Bedford 

800-  850 

Trenton     

Columbus    .. 

282  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

TABLE  XLVI 

Comparison  of  the  ranges  of  salaries  in  the  elementary  and  high 
schools  of  Grand  Rapids  with  those  of  11  other  cities. 

Range  in 
High  School 
800-1200 
550-1700 
850-1400 
700-1800 
800-1350 
900-1500 
1100-1400 
1000-2000 
750-2000 
800-2200 
1000-2500 
1600-2500 

Table  XLVI  and  Diagram  LXVII  show  that  Grand  Rapids 
is  considerably  below  most  of  the  cities  with  which  it  is  compared 
both  in  its  minimum  and  maximum  limits,  particularly  for  high- 
school  teachers.  Only  three  cities  have  a  lower  minimum  salary 
schedule  for  high-school  teachers,  while  all  but  one  of  the  cities 
listed  have  a  much  higher  maximum  limit.  If  Grand  Rapids  is 
to  continue  to  secure  first-class  teachers  it  must  increase  its 
salary  schedules  by  several  hundred  dollars. 

In  addition  to  the  training  and  experience  exacted  of  teach- 
ers previous  to  their  appointment  to  positions,  contemporary 
educational  theory  and  practice  demand  that  there  shall  be  evi- 
dences of  continued  growth  on  the  part  of  teachers  while  in 
service.  There  are  obviously  numerous  ways  in  which  such 
development  may  be  secured.  Attendance  at  educational  meet- 
ings, participation  in  activities  connected  with  social,  philan- 
thropic, religious,  and  cultural  undertakings,  private  reading  and 
study,  all  carried  forward  coincident  with  the  school  year,  are 
some  of  these.  But  the  long  summer  vacation  periods  likewise 
afford  opportunity  for  systematic  study  that  has  been  fully 
grasped  by  relatively  few  persons.  The  college  and  university 
summer  school  has  become  an  established  agency  in  our  educa- 
tional administration.  Its  courses  are  organized  quite  largely  to 
meet  the  peculiar  needs  of  teachers  of  experience.  Its  term  is 
usually  scheduled  to  fit  the  convenience  of  public  school  men  and 
women.  It  exists,  in  fact,  primarily  to  aid  those  who  aspire  to 
grow  in  service.  Foreign  and  domestic  travel,  in  like  manner, 
yield  benefits  to  teachers  that  are  incommensurable. 

While  no  doubt  the  best  service  many  a  teacher  can  render 
to  herself  and  her  school  frequently  will  come  as  the  result  of  a 
vacation  period  spent  in  complete  rest  and  recreation,  it  is  rea- 
sonable to  expect  and  to  demaild  that  occasionally  such  vacation 
periods  shall  be  spent  otherwise.  Table  XLVII  and  Diagram 
LXVII  I  show  the  manner  in  which  the  high-school  teachers  of 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 


283 


284  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

Grand  Rapids  have  spent  the  summer  vacation  periods  during 
the  past  six  years. 

TABLE  XLVII 

Shows  the  way  in  which  the  high-school  teachers  of  Grand  Rapids 
have  spent  the  summer  vacation  periods  during  the  past  six  years. 

TRAVELING 

Number                 Number  of  Average  per  Average 

SCHOOL                         Traveling                 Summers  Teacher               for  Entire  School 

Central    27                               67  2.48  1.39 

Union    17                               33  1.94  .84 

South     13                               33  2.53  .94 

Junior    14                                23  1.63  .69 

Total    71                             156  2.19  1.00 

*SUMMER  SCHOOL  WORK 

Number               Number  of  Average  Average 

SCHOOL                         Attending                Summers  Teacher                    Per  School 

Central    27                               49  1.81  1.02 

Union     24                                43  1.79  1.10 

South     21                               43  2.04  1.22 

Junior 18                                39  2.16  1.18 

Total    90                            174  1.93  1.12 

*   Credit  is  given  for  one  or  more  summers  thus  spent. 

REST    AND    PLEASURE 

Number  of  Aggregate  Number  Average  Average 

SCHOOL                          Teachers           of  Summers  Per  Teacher        for  Entire  School 

Central    36                            100  2.77  2.08 

Union    29                               70  2.41  1.79 

South     20                               52  2.60  1.48 

Junior    17                               58  3.41  1.76 

Total    102                            280  2.74  1.80 

These  statistics  reveal  the  following-  interesting  facts : 
Seventy-one  teachers  have  spent  an  aggregate  of  156  vacation 
periods  in  travel;  ninety  have  attended  college,  university  or 
other  summer  schools  for  a  total  of  174  terms;  102  have  devoted 
an  aggregate  of  280  summer  vacation  periods  exclusively  to  rest 
and  pleasure.  Put  into  the  form  of  averages  the  following  re- 
sults are  obtained,  namely :  The  typical  high-school  teacher  in 
Grand  Rapids  has  employed  the  last  six  vacation  periods  thus: 

Travel   1.00 

Summer   School   1.12 

Rest  and  pleasure  exclusively  1.80 

Unspecified    (probably  mostly   in  rest) 2.08 

Total   6.00 

The  degree  to  which  specialization  of  work  is  carried  in 
the  schools  is  shown  by  the  accompanying  table  and  Diagrams 
LXIX  and  LXX. 

TABLE  XLVIII 
Departmentalization  of  work  in  the  high  schools  of  Grand  Rapids. 

Teachers  No.  of  Teachers  Teaching  Subjects  as  Follows : 
SCHOOL                  Not  Reporting     One         Two       Three         Four        Five        Six       Seven 

Central    3  10              13              14               6                1              0              1 

Union     2  6              10              11                3                7              0             0 

South   « 5  8487300 

Junior  0  7              10                7                6                111 

Totals     10  31              37              40             22              12              1              2 

Percentages     ....         6.5  20.0         23.9          25.8          14.2            7.7          .65          1.3 

Median:     Between  two  and  three.  , 


DIAGRAM    LXVIII — Showing    the    manner    in    which    high-school    teachers    of    Grand 
Rapids  have  spent  the  last  six  summer  vacations, 


286  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  Ml  CM  I  ('.AN 

More  than  sixty-nine  per  cent  of  all  the  teachers  have  not  to 
exceed  three  separate  subjects  to  prepare  and  teach  daily,  the 
median  being  somewhat  less  than  three.  The  showing  is  there- 
fore good,  albeit  there  is  always  a  danger  of  over-specialization 
as  well  as  tmder-specialization  in  conducting  school  work. 

The  amount  of  time  teachers  spend  daily  in  preparing  for 
their  duties  is  one  test  of  merit  and  efficiency,  though  surely  not 
an  absolute  test.  Obviously  persons  whose  work  lies  in  a  single 
limited  field,  or  wrho  are  assigned  several  class  sections  of  the 
same  course,  or  who  teach  expressional  subjects  only,  require  for 
outside  preparation  less  time  than  teachers  of  other  brandies. 
Table  XLIX  and  Diagrams  LXXI  and  LXXII  show  the  varia- 
tions in  this  time.  The  mode  seems  to  be  between  an  hour  and  a 
half  and  two  hours ;  the  median  is  the  same ;  while  the  range  is 


DIAGRAM    LX1X — Showing    departmentalization    of    work    in    high    schools. 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 


287 


DIAGRAM    LXX— Showing   the   range   of   different   class 
teachers  of  the  Junior  and  Senior  High 


subjects 
Schools. 


taught    daily    by    the 


TABLE  XLIX 

Showing  the  number  of  minutes  teachers  spend  daily  in  preparing 
their  school  work. 


SCHOOL 
Central     

Under  3 
1 

Number  of  Teachers  .Spending  Number  of 
Minutes    Indicated    in    Preparing    Work                       Not   Re- 
0       30-60         61-90        91-120       121-200      Over  200     porting 
5                12                14                 8                 2                  6 
4                10                12                  7                  1                  5 
10                  5                  7                11                  2                  0 
7                  7                  7                10                  1                  0 
26                34                40                36                  6                11 
16.8            21.9           25.8            23.2               3.9               7.1 

Union     

0 

South 

o 

Junior     
Totals     
Percentage    .. 

1 

2 
1.3 

Mfli:iii:      Between    91    and    120    minutes. 


288 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


from  less  than  30  minutes  to  more  than  200  minutes.  Speaking 
generally,  the  time  given  by  teachers  to  the  preparation  of  their 
daily  work  seems  reasonable. 

Conducting  classroom  exercises  is,  after  all,  but  part  of  a 
teacher's  daily  routine  of  work.  Hall  duty,  session-room  duty, 
assisting  pupils  after  school  to  make  up  lost  work,  assisting  with 
student  collateral  activities,  attending  to  minor  cases  of  disci- 
pline— all  these  demand  an  added  portion  of  a  teacher's  energy 
and  time.  Table  L  and  Diagram  LXXIIT  indicate  the  range, 


DIAGRAM   LXXI— Showing  time   spent  by   teachers   preparing   work. 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 


289 


m 

f\  i  i  ,  \ 


tM 


SK 


DIAGRAM   LXXII — Showing  the  range  in  time  spent  by  teachers   daily  in  preparation 

of    school    work. 

in  minutes,  devoted  by  teachers  to  these  tasks.  From  these  it  is 
to  be  noted  that  few  teachers  devote  less  than  an  hour  per  day 
to  such  work,  whereas  the  median  lies  between  an  hour  and  an 
hour  and  a  half. 


TABLE  L 

Range  of  time  spent  daily  by  high-school  teachers  on  duties  other 
than   class   recitations. 


SCHOOL 

Central  

Union  

South  

Junior  

Totals     

Percentage 


Under  30 
2 
2 
0 
0 
4 
2.6 


Number  of  Teachers   Spending  Minutes  Indicated  Not 

on    Duties    Other    Than    Class    Recitation  Answering, 


30-60 

11 

9 

9 

14 
43 
27.7 


Median  :     Sixty  to  ninety  minutes. 


61-90 
6 
8 

10 
4 

28 
18.1 


91-120 

9 

9 

8 

8 

34 
21.9 


121-200     Over  200     or  None 


6 
7 
5 
6 

24 
15.5 


6 
1 

0 
0 
7 

4.5 


8 
3 
3 
1 

15 
9.7 


290 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


A  teacher's  efficiency  and  worth  must  finally  be  judged  by 
the  character  and  quality  of  the  results  attained  by  her.  School 
results,  however,  are  difficult  of  computation.  The  school  pro- 
duct is  a  human  product  and  none  can  compute  in  mathematical 
terms  the  teacher's  influence  in  shaping  ideals,  attitudes,  thought 
processes,  reactions  and  success  in  human  life.  Only  approxi- 
mate conclusions  can  be  drawn.  It  is  therefore  a  mistaken  policy 
which  seeks  to  rank  a  teacher  solely  by  reason  of  the  term  marks 
she  gives  out.  Nevertheless  a  high  percentage  of  pupil  failures 
in  any  school  subject  is  evidence  which  tends  to  show  that  one 
or  more  of  several  unfortunate  and  unjustifiable  conditions  exist. 


DIAGRAM    LXXIII — Showing    range    of    time    high-school    teachers    spend    daily    on 
duties     other    than    class    recitations. 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  291 

These  are  :  faulty  organizations  of  the  subject-matter,  or  improper 
classification  of  pupils,  or  unwarranted  standards  of  attainment 
as  set  by  the  teacher,  or  excessively  poor  teaching.  When  a  course 
of  study  has  been  the  product  of  careful  reflective  analysis,  when 
it  has  stood  the  test  of  trial  for  years,  both  in  a  given  school  and 
in  schools  of  like  character  throughout  the  land,  an  abnormally 
large  percentage  of  failures  each  term  is  a  condition  that  pretty 
definitely  points  to  the  teacher  as  the  responsible  and  unjustifi- 
able cause  thereof.  What  shall  be  the  normal  percentage  of  non- 
promotions  for  any  given  class  can  not  of  course  be  stated  with 
positiveness.  The  law  of  probability  would  suggest  not  to  ex- 
ceed ten  per  cent.  As  the  upper  grades  of  the  high  school  are 
reached  even  this  percentage  is  regarded  as  being  too  large.  Cer- 
tain it  is  that  non-promotions  amounting  repeatedly  to  twenty- 
twenty-five  and  thirty  per  cent  or  more  of  the  class  are  unjusti- 
fiable and  should  be  stopped  by  the  administrative  officers. 
Either  better  teaching  should  be  insisted  upon  or  modified  stand- 
ards of  attainment  should  be  established.  To  permit  the  con- 
tinuance of  such  practices  is  to  swell  the  amount  of  school  mor- 
tality beyond  all  reasonable  limits.  Education  which  is  growth 
does  not  result  from  repeated  failure  but  from  repeated  successes. 
The  following  tables  and  diagrams  reveal  in  part  the  situa- 
tion as  it  exists  in  Grand  Rapids.  A  study  of  these  tables  and 
diagrams  evinces  the  fact  that  there  is  considerable  need  of 
bringing  to  the  consciences  of  teachers  of  certain  branches  the 
necessity  for  rather  radical  reforms  on  their  part. 

TABLE  LI 

Showing  the  number  of  high-school  teachers  who  at  the  close  of 
last  semester  (Sept.  1915-Jan.  1916)  promoted  stated  percentages  of 
pupils. 

Teachers  Not 
SCHOOL  Reporting  Number  of  Teachers  Promoting 


Central    

3 

Under  7( 
2 

)%  70-80 
6 

%   81-90% 
27 

91-95% 

96-99? 

fo      100% 

o 

Union 

4 

1 

2 

10 

g 

9 

5 

South   

3 

2 

7 

11 

2 

2 

8 

Junior        

7 

2 

3 

12 

1 

4 

4 

Totals 

17 

7 

18 

60 

18 

18 

17 

Percentages    .. 

•»*•     j:  -        Tt  -A.. 

10.9 

01         _ 

4.5 

11.6 

38.7 

11.6 

11.6 

10.9 

TABLE  LII 

Showing   the    number    of    high-school    teachers    who    failed    certain 
percentages  of  students  last  semester. 

Teachers  Not 

SCHOOL  Reporting  Number  of  Teachers  Failing:  Over 

0%        1-5%     6-10%   11-15%   16-20%   21-30%    30% 

Central     5  1  15  15  9  2  10 

Union     5  7  14  9  3  0  1  0 

South     49770521 

Junior    74873400 

Totals     21  21  44  38  15  11  4  1 

Percentages   13.6        13.6        28.4       24.5          9.7          7.1          2.6  .6 

Median:     Between  6-10%. 


292 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


294 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


The  following  tables  and  diagrams  show  the  percentages  of 
pupils  who  were  failed,  conditioned,  and  promoted  by  the  sever- 
al teachers  in  the  Central  High  School,  Grand  Rapids,  during 
the  four  years  1911-1915.  The  variations  not  only  among  the 
several  departments  but  also  among  the  various  teachers  within 
particular  departments  are  notable.  The  summarizing  table  and 
diagram  (Table  LIII  and  Diagram  LXXVI)  are  especially  in- 
teresting. From  these  it  is  to  be  observed  that  the  general  aver- 
age of  the  entire  school  for  the  four  years  compiled  is :  Passed, 
83.24%;  conditioned,  6.6%;  not  passed,  10.16%.  The  depart- 
ment of  German  has  the  greatest  pupil  mortality,  only  74.69  per 
cent  of  all  persons  electing  the  subject  being  given  a  passing 
mark  and  14.76  per  cent  being  failed  outright.  On  the  other 
hand,  relatively  few  who  have  elected  work  in  science  have  been 
held  back  from  promotions,  91.88  per  cent  of  the  pupils  pursuing 
the  subject  having  received  term  marks  of  "passed".  German, 
mathematics  and  Latin,  in  the  order  named,  are  the  only  depart- 
ments in  which  the  percentages  of  pupils  "passed"  falls  below 
the  general  average  of  the  entire  school,  and  the  two  depart- 
ments of  Latin  and  German  are  the  only  ones  in  which  the  per- 
centage of  "conditioned"  pupils  is  in  excess  of  that  of  the  general 
average  for  the  entire  school. 


MOT 


GE-NT-  CONDITIONED. 


DIAGRAM    LXXVI — Percentage   of  pupils   "passed",    "not  passed",   and   " 
in    the    subjects    indicated    for    the    years    1911-1915.       Central 
High    School,    Grand    Rapids. 


conditioned' 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 


295 


TABLE  LIII 

Showing  the  percentages  of  marks,  by  departments,  in  the  Central 
High  School  of  Grand  Rapids  for  the  four  years,  1911-1915. 


SUBJECT 

English     

Latin    

German    

French  and  Spanish- 
Mathematics     

History  

Science  

General   Average 


Per  Cent 
Passed 
84.22 
81.17 
74.69 
87.12 
79.75 
83.88 
91.88 
83.24 


Per  Cent 
Conditioned 

Per  Cent 
Not  Passed 

6.34 

9.44 

8.33 

10.50 

10.55 

14.76 

5.97 

6.91 

6.55 

13.70 

5.11 

11.01 

3.39 

4.73 

6.60 

10.16 

In  considering  individual  teachers  and  their  markings  it  is 
to  be  noted  also  that  wide  variations  occur.  The  following  ex- 
treme cases  are  to  be  found. 


TABLE  LIV 

Percentage  of  pupils  passed  and  not  passed  by  individual  teachers 
in  the  various  high-school  subjects  at  Central  High  School. 


SUBJECT 
English 


Latin 


German 


Teacher's     Number 
(arbitrarily   assigned) 

32 

23 

37 

38 

24 

29 

17 
20 
22 
19 

61 
59 
62 
60 
56 


French  and  Spanish 


Mathematics 


History 


Science 


53 
55 
52 
54 

7 

2 

8 

11 

45 
44 
46 
50 

64 
68 
69 
70 
71 
76 


Per  Cent  of 

Pupils  Passed 

98+ 

92  + 

93  + 
72— 
74+ 
76+ 

80 
80 
81 
74 

59.6 
68.0 
79.4 
77.5 
71.5 

79.2 

93.8 

.      96.1 

79.5 

89.4 
69.9 
77.4 
72.3 

70.3 
79.9 
88.2 
88.1 

94.0 
98.0 
96.4 
98.5 
98.5 
95.5 


Per  Cent  of 
Pupils  Not  Passed 
3— 
6— 

5— 
20+ 


10 
10 

11 

16 

23.9 
16.7 
9.9 
11.3 
16.3 

11.8 
3.1 
1.9 

10.8 

6.4 
17.5 
18.3 
20.8 

12.4 

11.6 

8.4 

7.6 

5.0 
2.0 
2.0 
1.5 
1.5 
0.0 


DIAGRAM   LXXVII — Percentage  of  pupils   "passed,"   "not  passed,"  and   "conditioned" 

at  the  Central   High   School   according  to   departments   for  the  years    1911-1915. 

A — English  ;     B — Latin  ;     C — German  ;     D — rSpanish    and    French  ;     E — 

Mathematics  ;   F — Mathematics  for  first  and  second   years  only ; 

G — History  ;    H — Science. 

A— ENGLISH 


20 


CE-NT  •  HOT  • 


ao 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

B—  LATIN 


60 


60 


297 


100 


60 


80 


C—  GERMAN 


40 


60 


100 


•  GONPITIONSB. 


298  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

D— SPANISH   AND   FRENCH 


o 


20 


40 


60 


O&HT  •  HOT 


E— MATHEMATICS 


8,0 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 


299 


GOKDITION&P. 

6,0  80 


F— MATHEMATICS    (First    and    Second    Years) 


300  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


CONPITION&P 


G— HISTORY 

•  GfrNT  •  P 


•  CONDITIONED. 

20  40  60 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 

H— SCIENCE 

GB-HT  • 


301 


40 


20.1 


CoNDlTlOHr>D. 

40  60  60  toe 


As  stated  before,  a  high  percentage  of  failures  among  stud- 
ents may  not  necessarily  be  a  cause  for  criticism  of  the  depart- 
ment or  the  teacher  concerned.  On  the  other  hand,  such  facts 
surely  give  no  valid  basis  for  pride  or  elation.  An  unusual 
number  of  pupils  not  promoted  over  a  period  of  four  years  is 
rather  clear  evidence  that  something  in  the  organization  or  ad- 
ministration of  the  work  needs  correcting.  Either  the  material 
studied  is  improperly  selected  and  graded  for  the  pupils  pursuing 
it,  or  standards  of  attainment  are  set  unjustifiably  high,  or  peda- 
gogical skill  is  lacking  in  the  teacher  or  teachers.  There  is  no 


302  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

virtue  in  discouraging  pupils.  Moreover,  it  must  be  remembered 
that  the  public  high  school  today  is  a  cosmopolitan  school  in 
many  senses.  No  longer  are  individuals  with  exceptional  liter- 
ary ability  and  interest  alone  being  admitted  as  students.  No 
longer  is  college  preparation  the  dominant  aim.  No  longer  is 
thoroughness  in  the  sense  of  complete  mastery  the  accepted 
pedagogical  ideal  for  every  high-school  course  and  for  every 
high-school  pupil  pursuing  it.  Some  work  is  designed  chiefly 
to  inspire,  stimulate  and  arouse  pupils  to  continued  effort  within 
the  selected  field;  some  is  designed  solely  to  yield  appreciation 
of  values.  Teachers  in  the  Central  High  School,  as  well  as  in 
the  other  schools,  will  do  well  to  compare  their  percentages  of 
promotions  and  failures  with  the  averages  of  their  department 
and  of  the  entire  school,  and  to  seek  to  discover  and  analyze  the 
causes  that  are  producing  marked  variations  from  common  prac- 
tice. 

General  Summary 

A.     Summary  of  commendations  made  in  reference  to  pre- 
vailing condition: 

1.  The  spirit  of  co-operation  shown  by  the  administrative 
officers  and  teachers  in  the  conduct  of  this  survey. 

2.  The  civic  pride  and  spirit  that  dominate  Grand  Rapids. 

3.  The  interest  taken  by  the  city  in  its  schools  and  other 
agencies  of  culture,  and  the  generous  financial  support  given 
them. 

4.  The  form  of  school  organization  that  has  been  adopted, 
namely  the  six-six  arrangement  of  the  twelve  .grades  with   a 
junior  college  supplementing  these. 

5.  The   freedom    accorded   administrative   officers   by   the 
Board  in  applying  rules  and  regulations  as  exigencies  may  make 
desirable. 

6.  The  artistic  and  serviceable  character  of  the  high-school 
buildings  recently  erected,  and  the  plans  for  the  extensions  of 
these  buildings. 

7.  The  policy  of  providing  play  and  athletic  grounds  for 
each  school. 

8.  The  organization  of  recitation  periods  on  the  basis  of 
sixty  minutes  each. 

9.  The  spirit  of  co-operation  and  loyalty  that  exists  among 
principals  and  teachers. 

10.  The  general  form  and  the  desirable  definiteness  of  bul- 
letins and  reports  that  are  issued. 

11.  The  policy  of  giving  each  student  in  the  junior  high 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  303 

schools  an  elementary  training  in  each  of  four  forms  of  manual 
or  domestic  arts. 

12.  The  policy  of  departing  from  the  traditional  uniform 
five-period  per  week  class  schedules. 

13.  The  policy  of  employing,  in  the  future,  none  but  col- 
lege-bred and  professionally  trained  teachers  for  all  grades  above 
the  sixth. 

14.  The  policy  of  assigning  to  the  several  teachers  classes  in 
the  lower  and  the  upper  grades  of  the  school,  thus  minimizing 
the  tendency  to  make  invidious  distinctions  of  rank  among  the 
corps  of  teachers. 

15.  The  policy  of  placing  teachers  of  seventh  and  eighth- 
grade  work  in  the  junior  high  schools  on  the  same  salary  sche-, 
dules  as  teachers  of  the  higher  grades. 

16.  The  general  policy  of  providing  in  varied  ways  for  the 
organization  of  student  collateral  activities  and  the  modes  of 
control  adopted. 

17.  The  provisions  for  giving  the  pupils  vocational  insight 
and  interest. 

18.  The  scope  or  range  of  the  program  of  studies  provided 
for  the  senior  high  schools. 

19.  The  spirit  of  democracy  and  decorum  that  prevails  in 
the  several  schools. 

B.  Summary  of  adverse  criticisms: 

1.  Omission  from  the  school  system  of  day-continuation  or 
trade  schools. 

2.  The  uncompleted  character  of  the  reorganization  of  the 
schools  on  the  six-six  basis. 

3.  Inadequacy  and  unhygienic  condition  of  the  Junior  High 
School  building. 

4.  Misuse  of  study  periods  as  at  present  organized. 

5.  Inflexibility   of   administration,   particularly   for   certain 
types  of  students  in  the  Junior  High  School. 

6.  Organization  and  administration  of  certain  departments 
of  work  in  the  Senior  High  School. 

C.  Summary  of  recommendations: 

1.  The  establishment  of  a  trade  or  day-continuation  school, 
possibly  within  the  present  Junior  High  School  building. 

2.  Providing,  soon,  for  additional  junior  high  schools  in 
the  city. 

3.  Re-examining  and  over-hauling  the  entire  program  of 
studies  by  the  administrative  and  teaching  staffs  acting  co-opera- 
tively. 


304  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

4.  Carrying  forward  a  constant  series  of  educational  and 
administrative    experiments,   the   checking   over   of   results    ob- 
tained,  and   the   continued   adoption   of   modifications   that   are 
found  to  be  advantageous. 

5.  Improvement  of  the  Junior  High  School  building,  so  as  to 
give  better  sanitary  and  hygienic  conditions,  less  over-crowding 
of  pupils,  and  adequate  facilities  for  auditorium,  shop,  gymnastic 
and  recreational  activities. 

6.  The   adoption   of  a   long-term   building  policy   for   the 
future. 

7.  Greater  freedom  for  individual  teachers  to  employ  the 
sixty-minute  recitation  period  as  exigencies  of  the  occasion  dic- 
tate. 

8.  More   attention  by  teachers  to  assignments  of  lessons 
and  to  careful  .summarizing  of  class  discussions. 

9.  The  gradual  extension  of  the  school  day  to  include  eight 
hours  to  be  devoted  to  intellectual,  recreational,  and  social  activi- 
ties. 

10.  Provision  for  sessions  of  the  schools  during  the  sum- 
mer months. 

11.  The  reorganization,  by  teachers,  of  the  courses  of  study, 
particularly  of  the  courses  of  English,  mathematics  and  history 
of  the  seventh,  eighth  and  ninth  grades. 

12.  Allowing   credit   for   one   year's   successful   pursuit   of 
foreign  language  study  if  the  study  is  then  discontinued  by  the 
pupil  for  adequate  reasons. 

13.  Testing   the    merits    of   a    two-year   general    language 
course  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades. 

14.  Continuing  the  course  in  general  science  in  the  seventh 
or  eighth  grades  and  making  it  available  for  all  pupils. 

15.  Allotting  the  work   in   physiology   to  the   teachers   of 
physical  training  and  general  science  and  withdrawing  it  from 
the  course  in  reading. 

16.  Provision  for  pupils  to  elect  some  commercial  work  in 
the  eighth  grade  in  all  the  junior  high  schools  and  not  merely 
at  the  Union  High  School. 

17.  Testing  the   feasibility   and   wisdom   of   permitting  or 
requiring  pupils  to  carry  more  than  twenty-five  hours  of  school 
work — academic,  manual,  and  recreational — per  week. 

18.  The  adoption  of  the  "point"  system  of  recording  credits 
in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  the  same  as  in  the  ninth  and 
upper  grades. 

19.  The  elimination  of  the  ceremonies  of  graduation  at  the 
end  of  the  eighth-grade  work. 

20.  Consideration,  by  principals  and  teachers,  of  the  policy 


SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  305 

of  segregating  boys  and  girls  in  recitation   sections  in   certain 
subjects  of  study. 

21.  Requiring  that  none  but  college-bred  teachers  of  sev- 
eral years  of  teaching  experience  and  of  unusual  personalities 
be  assigned  to  junior  high-school  teaching  positions. 

22.  The  granting  of  leaves  of  absence  to  teachers  at  fre- 
quent intervals  for  the  sake  of  rest  and  study. 

23.  Securing  an  athletic  ground  for  the  South  High  School 
and  making  available  for  pupils  of  the  Central  High  School  the 
gymnasium  that  is  designed  for  their  use. 

24.  Allowing  school  credit  for  out-of-school  work  of  ap- 
propriate kind. 

25.  The    gradual    expansion    of    the    salary    schedules    of 
teachers  in  harmony  with  the  increased  cost  of  living. 

26.  The   continuation   of   the   present  Junior   College   and 
adequate  provision  for  its  maintenance. 

27.  The   consideration   of   the   feasibility   of   reducing   the 
tuition  fee  in  the  Junior  College  considerably  below  the  present 
fee. 

28.  Securing  a  more  definite  understanding  with  the  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan,  whereby,  during  the  next  year  or  two  of  the 
development  of  the  Junior  College,  a  somewhat  more  liberal  and 
economic  classification  of  pupils  within  the  Junior  College  may 
be  secured. 

29.  Providing,  as  soon  as  conditions  will  warrant,  segre- 
gated quarters  for  the  junior-college  students. 

30.  Providing,  as  soon  as  numbers  of  pupils  will  warrant,  a 
second  years'  offering  of  the  junior-college  work. 

31.  The  carrying  on  of  a  dignified  campaign  of  advertising 
for  the  Junior  College  and  its  work. 


CHAPTER  XII 

SPECIAL  CLASSES  OF  THE 

PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  OF 

GRAND  RAPIDS 


Charles  Scott  Berry 


INTRODUCTION 

1.  Classes  for  Retarded  Children. 

a.  Auxiliary  Classes. 

b.  Ungraded  Classes. 

2.  Open  Air  Classes. 

3.  Truant  School. 

In  partial  preparation  for  this  report  which  is  a  study  of  the 
classes  for  retarded  children,  the  open  air  classes,  and  the  truant 
school,  the  writer  spent  six  days  in  Grand  Rapids  visiting  schools 
and  studying  conditions.  During  this  period  he  visited  the  aux- 
iliary school,  all  the  auxiliary  classes,  a  number  of  ungraded 
classes,  the  truant  school,  and  the  three  open  air  classes.  He 
met  the  teachers  of  the  auxiliary  and  ungraded  classes  and  in- 
structed them  how  to  give  certain  pedagogical  tests  to  their 
pupils.  All  the  pupils  in  the  auxiliary  classes  and  five  pupils  in 
each  of  the  ungraded  classes  and  the  truant  school,  were  given 
these  tests.  He  also  met  the  principals  of  the  elementary  schools 
and  discussed  with  them  methods  of  selecting  pupils  for  un- 
graded classes.  He  distributed  to  the  teachers  of  the  auxiliary 
and  the  ungraded  classes  a  questionnaire  covering  important 
points  connected  with  their  work  and  training.  He  not  only 
visited  classes  and  made  psychological  tests,  but  he  also  had 
conferences  with  some  of  the  prominent  citizens  not  connected 
with  the  school  who  are  interested  in  the  problems  of  retard- 
ation. 

Through  the  courtesy  of  Mr.  W.  A.  Greeson,  superintendent 
of  schools,  and  Mrs.  Cordelia  Creswell,  supervisor  of  special 


SPECIAL  CLASSES  OF  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  307 

classes,  the  writer  was  given  every  opportunity  to  cover  as 
much  ground  as  possible  in  the  limited  time  at  his  disposal.  And 
he  wishes  to  express  his  appreciation,  not  only  of  the  generous 
assistance  rendered  him  by  Supt.  Greeson  and  Mrs.  Creswell,  but 
also  his  appreciation  of  the  kind  reception  given  him  by  the 
principals  and  teachers  who  ungrudgingly  assisted  him  in  every 
way  possible. 

1.     Class  for  Retarded  Pupils 

Grand  Rapids  has  a  larger  percentage  of  its  elementary- 
school  pupils  enrolled  in  special  classes  for  retarded  children 
than  has  New  York  City,  Philadelphia,  St.  Louis,  Chicago,  Cleve- 
land, or  Detroit.  This  does  not  mean  that  Grand  Rapids  has  a 
larger  percentage  of  backward  and  feeble-minded  children  than 
any  of  the  cities  named,  for  we  have  no  good  reason  to  think  such 
is  the  case;  but  it  means  rather  that  the  superintendent  of  the 
Grand  Rapids  schools  has  for  some  years  been  making  a  special 
study  of  how  to  reduce  the  amount  of  retardation  in  the  ele- 
mentary schools  and  the  special  class  for  retarded  children  has 
been  developed  as  one  means  to  that  end.  At  the  present  time 
almost  five  per  cent  of  the  pupils  enrolled  in  the  elementary 
schools  of  Grand  Rapids  are  in  classes  for  retarded  children. 
The  growth  in  the  number  of  pupils  enrolled  in  these  classes 
over  a  period  of  eight  years  is  shown  in  Table  LV. 

TABLE  LV 
Growth  in  enrollment  in  special  classes  during  eight  years. 


School   Year 
1907-1908               

Enrollment  in 
Special  Classes 
94 

Enrollment  in 
Elementary  Schools 
14139 

Per  Cent  of  Pupils 
in  Special  Classes 
0.67 

1908-1909   

156 

14172 

1.10 

1909-1910 

280 

14435 

1.94 

1910-1911    

510 

14661 

3.47 

1911-1912 

568 

14688 

3.87 

1912-1913 

790 

15373 

5.13 

1913-1914 

790 

15582 

5.07 

1914-1915    .. 

754 

15519 

4.86 

In  the  first  column  is  given  the  school  year;  in  the  second 
column  the  total  enrollment  in  the  special  classes  for  retarded 
pupils ;  in  the  third  column  the  'total  enrollment  in  the  public 
elementary  schools ;  and  in  the  last  column  the  percentage  the  en- 
rollment in  the  special  classes  is  of  the  total  enrollment  in  the 
elementary  schools. 

From  Table  LV  we  see  that  the  enrollment  in  the  special 
classes  for  retarded  children  has  increased  from  less  than  one 


308  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

per  cent  of  the  enrollment  in  1907-1908  to  almost  five  per  cent  in 
1914-1915. 

The  general  policy  of  the  superintendent  has  been  to  place 
in  these  special  classes  principally  children  retarded  two  years  or 
more ;  that  is,  the  pupils  who  are  two  years  or  more  over  age  for 
their  grade.  The  increase  over  a  period  of  five  years  in  the  per- 
centage of  pupils  two  years  or  more  over  age  enrolled  in  these 
classes  is  shown  in  Table  LVI. 

TABLE  LVI 

Increase  during  five  years  in  percentage  of  pupils  two  years  or  more 
over  age  enrolled  in  special  classes. 


School    Year 
1910-1911    .. 

No. 
in  Kindergarten 
and  Grades 
676 

No.  in 
Special  Classes 
510 

Total  No. 
in  Grades  and 
Special  Classes 
1186 

Per  Cent  in 
Special  Classes 
42.9 

1911-1912 

529 

568 

1097 

51.7 

1912-1913    .. 

456 

790 

1246 

63.2 

1913-1914 

352 

790 

1142 

69.3 

1914-1915    .. 

261 

754 

1015 

74.6 

Table  LVI  gives  the  number  of  pupils  in  the  public  ele- 
mentary schools  of  Grand  Rapids  two  years  or  more  over  age, 
and  the  percentage  of  this  number  in  special  classes  for  retarded 
children  (auxiliary  and  ungraded  classes). 

In  1910-1911  about  forty-three  per  cent  of  the  pupils  two 
years  or  more  over  age  were  enrolled  in  special  classes;  in  1914- 
1915  almost  seventy-five  per  cent  are  to  be  found  in  these  classes. 

In  forming  these  special  classes  the  superintendent  had  two 
objects  in  view;  first,  to  reduce  the  amount  of  retardation  in  the 
regular  grades  by  removing  those  who  blocked  the  progress  of 
the  normal  children ;  and,  second,  to  give  the  retarded  children 
the  training  and  instruction  suited  to  their  needs.  Let  us  con- 
sider, first,  to  what  extent  he  has  been  successful  in  reducing  the 
retardation  in  the  schools  by  the  formation  of  these  classes.  If 
the  special  class  is  effective,  we  should  expect  to  find  each  year 
a  smaller  percentage  of  the  total  enrollment  retarded.  Unfort- 
unately we  cannot  go  back  of  the  year  1910-1911  because  a  differ- 
ent method  of  reckoning  retardation  was  used  prior  to  that  date. 
In  Table  LVII  is  given  for  a  period  of  five  years  the  percentage 
of  pupils  retarded  one  year,  two  years  or  more,  as  well  as  the 
total  percentage  retarded. 

TABLE  LVII 
Retardation  in  the  elementary  schools. 


School    Year 
1910-1911    

Per  Cent  Retarded 
One  Year 
8.19 

Per  Cent  Retarded 
Two  Years  or  More 
8.07 

Total  Per  Cent 
Retarded 
16.26 

1911-1912    

7.13 

7.46 

14.59 

1912-1913 

6.55 

8.10 

14.65 

1913-1914   

5.15 

7.33 

12.48 

1914-1915    .. 

4.58 

6.55 

11.13 

SPECIAL  CLASSES  OF  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  309 

In  1910-1911  the  total  number  retarded  was  over  sixteen  per 
cent  of  the  elementary  school  enrollment;  in  1914-1915  it  had 
fallen  to  about  eleven  per  cent.  That  is,  during  this  period  of 
five  years  the  retardation  has  decreased  over  thirty-one  per  cent. 
Doubtless  other  factors  besides  the  special  class  have  contributed 
in  bringing  about  this  reduction  in  retardation,  but  without 
question  the  special  class  has  played  an  important  part. 

In  this  connection  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  during  the 
period  there  has'  been  a  comparatively  slight  reduction  in  the 
total  percentage  of  pupils  two  years  or  more  over  age.  In  1910-11 
eight  and  seven-hundreths  per  cent  of  the  total  enrollment  were 
retarded  two  years  or  more;  in  1914-1915  it  had  only  dropped  to 
six  and  fifty-five  hundreths  per  cent,  a  reduction  of  nineteen  per 
cent ;  but  the  number  retarded  one  year  dropped  from  eight  and 
nineteen  hundreths  per  cent  of  the  enrollment  in  1910-1911  to 
four  and  fifty-eight  hundredths  per  cent  in  1914-1915,  a  reduction 
of  forty-four  per  cent.  In  other  words,  the  reduction  during  this 
period  in  the  percentage  of  pupils  retarded  one  year  was  more 
than  twice  as  great  as  the  reduction  in  the  percentage  of  pupils 
retarded  two  years  or  more.  It  is  true  that  we  have  not  consid- 
ered one  factor  that  would  make  some  difference  and  that  is,  the 
fact  that  some  pupils  are  put  into  the  special  classes  who  are  not 
retarded  two  years  or  more,  and  we  have  estimated  all  the  pupils 
in  the  special  classes  to  be  two  years  or  more  over  age.  How- 
ever, this  factor  alone  could  not  possibly  account  for  the  differ- 
ence. 

In  estimating  retardation  (and  our  discussion  thus  far  has 
been  based  on  the  figures  taken  from  the  reports)  the  superin- 
tendent has  considered  at  age  all  pupils  in  the  first  grade  eight 
years  old,  in  the  second  nine,  in  the  third  ten,  and  so  on.  This 
is  making  a  very  liberal  allowance  as  most  of  the  children  enter 
the  first  grade  when  six  years  of  age.  Let  us  consider  retarded 
all  children  in  the  first  grade  eight  years  old,  in  the  second  nine, 
in  the  third  ten,  and  so  on,  in  order  that  we  may  determine  what 
changes  have  taken  place  in  this  group  in  the  five  years  under 
discussion.  The  results  are  given  in  Table  LVIII. 

TABLE  LVIII 

Number  of  pupils  retarded  one  year  by  a  different  method  of  esti- 
mating retardation. 
School  Year  Per  Cent  Retarded  One  Year 

1910-1911    18.5 

1911-1912  15.8 

1912-1913  ".".ZZZZZZZZ 14.4 

1913-1914    12.7 

1914-1915    12.4 

All  the  pupils  in  this  table  are  at  age  by  the  superintendent's 
method  of  estimating  retardation. 


310  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

In  1910-1911  eighteen  and  five-tenths  per  cent  were  retarded 
one  year  (using  our  less  liberal  standard  of  reckoning  retarda- 
tion) but  by  1914-1915  this  had  fallen  to  twelve  and  four-tenths 
per  cent,  a  reduction  of  about  one-third.  These  figures  in  con- 
nection with  the  figures  given  in  Table  LVII  seem  to  indicate 
that  the  special  class,  at  least  as  it  is  at  present  organized,  is 
most  effective,  not  in  reducing  retardation  amounting  to  two 
years  or  more,  but  rather  in  reducing  the  retardation  of  one 
year  or  less.  This  fact  seems  to  indicate  that  pupils  who  are  so 
dull  as  to  .lose  two  years  or  more  during  the  first  three  or  four 
years  of  school  life  cannot  keep  the  pace  set  by  the  normal  child 
even  though  the  regular  teacher  does  give  them  unusual  atten- 
tion. The  chief  value  accrues  to  the  child  of  average  or  slightly 
less  than  average  ability  who  can  make  his  grade  if  he  receives 
a  little  extra  help  from  the  teacher.  In  other  words,  a  policy 
that  would  place  in  the  special  class  those  children  who  cannot 
complete  the  first  three  or  four  grades  without  repeating  twice 
or  oftener  is  sound,  for  most  of  these  pupils  will  not  be  able  to 
keep  up  with  the  normal  pupils  no  matter  how  much  assistance 
they  may  receive.  They  are  destined  to  march  more  slowly 
than  their  normal  fellows,  simply  because  they  have  less  ability. 

But  is  it  wise  to  allow  a  child  to  fail  in  two  years'  work  be- 
fore he  is  placed  in  a  special  class?  While  we  believe  that  a 
policy  that  looks  to  placing  in  special  classes  all  those  children 
who  if  left  in  the  regular  grades  would  lose  two  years  or  more  is 
sound,  yet  that  is  quite  a  different  matter  from  waiting  until  the 
child  has  lost  his  two  years  before  he  is  placed  in  the  special  class. 
The  present  policy  of  allowing  the  child  to  fail  in  two  or  three 
years'  work  before  he  is  placed  in  the  special  class  where  he  be- 
longs is  not  using  that  class  to  best  advantage  as  a  means  of 
reducing  retardation  in  the  regular  grades,  for  the  retarded  child 
has  been  blocking  the  progress  of  the  normal  children  for  several 
years  before  he  is  finally  put  into  the  special  class.  A  study  of 
repetition  in  the  grades  during  the  five-year  period  indicated  in 
Table  LVIII  shows  that  during  this  time  the  greatest  reduction 
in  repetition  has  been  in  the  third  and  fourth  grades,  not  in  the 
first  and  second  grades,  nor  in  the  grammar  grades.  This  seems 
to  indicate  that  relief  comes  to  the  teachers  of  the  third  and 
fourth  grades  through  the  removal  of  the  special-class  pupils. 
Yet  it  is  the  first  and  second  grades  that  stand  most  in  need  of 
relief.  During  the  first  semester  of  1915-1916  the  percentage  of 
repeaters  in  the  first  and  second  grades  of  the  Grand  Rapids 
schools  was  greater  than  in  any  other  two  grades.  Furthermore 
the  primary  teachers  have  a  larger  number  of  pupils  to  teach 
than  do  the  teachers  of  the  grammar  grades.  In  1914-1915  the 


SPECIAL  CLASSES  OF  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  311 

number  of  pupils  per  teacher  based  on  the  average  belonging,  was 
for  the  grammar  grades  twenty-seven  and  two  tenths  and  for  the 
primary  grades  thirty-two  and  three  tenths.  That  is,  the  pri- 
mary teachers  have  on  the  average  five  more  pupils  per  teacher 
than  the  teachers  of  the  grammar  grades. 

Not  only  do  the  teachers  of  the  first  and  second  grades  have 
more  pupils  than  the  teachers  of  the  higher  grades  but  among 
these  pupils  are  to  be  found  most  of  the  backward  and  defective 
children,  for  these  children  are  commonly  not  put  into  the  spe- 
cial class  until  they  have  reached  the  third  grade.  In  other 
words,  the  special  class,  one  function  of  which  is  to  reduce  the 
repetition  in  the  regular  grades,  is  not  helping  at  all  where  help 
is  most  needed,  in  the  first  and  second  grades. 

Why  not  follow  the  plan  of  selecting  the  pupils  for  the 
special  class  from  the  children  who  have  failed  in  the  first  half 
of  the  first  grade's  work?  If  this  method  of  selection  were 
adopted,  the  first  and  second-grade  teachers  would  get  relief 
at  the  earliest  possible  period.  By  this  method  of  selection  the 
special  class  would  become  most  effective  in  reducing  retardation 
where  reduction  is  most  desirable ;  viz.,  in  the  first  and  second 
grades. 

From  the  standpoint  of  the  good  of  the  backward  child  an 
early  selection  is  highly  advisable.  If  he  is  allowed  to  fail  two 
or  three  times  before  he  is  put  into  the  special  class  he  has  be- 
come schooled  in  failure  before  he  gets  even  a  fair  chance,  for 
surely  he  has  not  had  a  fair  chance  if  he  has  been  expected  to 
do  more  than  his  ability  enables  him  to  do.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  failure  in  the  first  term's  work  in  the  first  grade  was  due  to 
poor  health,  or  poor  teaching,  the  child  now  has  an  opportunity 
to  make  good  as  he  is  given  exceptional  opportunities,  and,  if 
he  makes  good,  he  is  returned  to  his  regular  grade.  But  if  he 
shows  he  has  not  the  ability  to  keep  up  with  the  normal  child, 
even  though  under  an  expert  teacher,  he  is  evidently  where  he 
belongs.  From  every  point  of  view  it  is  advisable  to  put  a  child 
into  a  special  class,  or  give  him  special  assistance,  as  soon  as  he 
has  shown  that  he  stands  in  need  of  such  assistance.  And  if  a 
child  fails  in  the  first  half  of  his  first  grade's  work,  that  fact  in 
itself  is  conclusive  evidence  that  his  case  needs  investigation — 
that  he  needs  help  of  some  kind. 

a.    Auxiliary  Classes 

(1)     History  and  Organization. 

The  classes  for  retarded  children  of  the  public  schools 
of  Grand  Rapids  are  divided  into  auxiliary  and  ungraded  classes. 


312  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

The  auxiliary  classes  are  for  the  mentally  defective  children, 
while  the  ungraded  classes  provide  for  the  backward  pupils. 

The  first  auxiliary  class  was  started  in  the  summer  of  1910. 
In  the  fall  of  that  year  the  auxiliary  school  consisting  of  four 
classes  of  twelve  pupils  each  was  organized.  Since  that  time 
eight  other  auxiliary  classes  have  been  organized  in  different 
parts  of  the  city  in  connection  with  the  regular  public  schools. 
The  auxiliary  school  which  is  located  in  a  separate  building  is 
organized  on  the  departmental  plan,  having  four  departments — 
kindergarten,  academic,  manual  training,  and  domestic  science. 

The  increase  in  the  number  enrolled  in  these  classes  since 
the  organization  of  the  auxiliary  school  in  1910  is  shown  in 
Table  LIX. 

TABLE  LIX 

Increase  in  number  of  pupils  in  auxiliary  classes  over  a  period  of 
five  years. 

School  Year  No.  in  Auxiliary  Classes 

1910-1911  ...                                       68 

1911-1912  70 

1912-1913  96 

1913-1914  93 

1914-1915  150 

In  the  five  years  of  the  existence  of  the  auxiliary  classes  the 
enrollment  has  more  than  doubled  until  at  the  present  time  it  is 
equal  to  almost  one  per  cent  of  the  total  enrollment  of  different 
pupils  in  the  elementary  schools. 

In  Table  LX  is  given  the  range  in  mental  and  chronological 
ages  that  is  to  be  found  in  each  of  the  auxiliary  classes  including 
the  auxiliary  school. 

TABLE  LX 

Range  in  chronological  and  mental  ages  of  pupils  enrolled  in  auxi- 
liary classes  and  auxiliary  school. 

SCHOOL  C.  Age  M.  Age 

Auxiliary                                                                               8-18  5.0-10.0  inc. 

Buchanan     7-12  6.2-  8.2 

Coldbrook    : 9-16  8.0-10.2 

Diamond  - 9-15  6.0-  9.8 

Franklin                                                                   8-13  5.2-10.6 

Jefferson    7-14  6.2-  8.8 

Junior    High    12-15  8.8-11.4 

Straight             7-11  4.0-  9.2 

Widdicomb   " 9-15  6.0-  9.2 

C.  Age,  Chronological  Age;  M.  Age,  Mental  Age. 

This  table  shows  that  the  auxiliary  classes  although  situated 
in  different  parts  of  the  city  are  much  alike  in  respect  to  the  range 
chronological  and  mental  ages,  with  the  exception  of  the  Junior 
High  auxiliary  class  which  is  made  up  of  high  grade  boys  and 
girls  ranging  in  mental  age  from  8.8  to  11.4  years  and  in  chron- 


SPECIAL  CLASSES  OF  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  313 

ological  age  from  12  to  15.  Some  of  the  high  grade  boys  and  girls 
of  the  other  auxiliary  classes  were  transferred  to  the  Junior  High 
class,  which  is  centrally  located,  in  order  that  they  might  be 
given  the  special  training  suitable  to  their  needs. 

(2)  Selection  of  Pupils 

The  children  who  are  put  into  the  auxiliary  classes  are  taken 
from  the  grades  and  from  the  classes  for  backward  children.  The 
principal  commonly  notifies  the  supervisor  of  special  classes  that 
she  has  some  children  in  her  school  that  she  would  like  to  have 
examined  with  the  view  of  putting  them  into  the  auxiliary  class  ff 
they  are  foun4  to  be  mentally  defective.  The  supervisor  ex- 
amines these  children  by  means  of  psychological  tests  and  if  they 
are  found  to  be  so  retarded  mentally  that  there  is  little  hope  of 
their  ever  catching  up  with  the  normal  child,  they  are  assigned 
to  the  auxiliary  class.  Occasionally  a  child  is  put  into  the  auxil- 
iary class  to  receive  some  extra  help  in  order  that  he  may  catch 
up  with  his  normal  fellows  and  return  to  his  grade,  but  common- 
ly only  pupils  that  are  considered  to  be  mentally  defective  are 
put  into  these  classes.  Children  are  also  brought  to  the  super- 
visor by  teachers  and  parents  for  examination  at  the  psychologi- 
cal clinic.  These  children  upon  examination  may  be  recommend- 
ed for  the  auxiliary  class. 

It  is  a  significant  fact  that  these  children  at  the  time  they 
are  given  the  psychological  examination  and  recommended 
for  the  auxiliary  class  are  not  given  a  medical  examination.  But 
after  they  have  been  assigned  to  the  auxiliary  class  the  teacher 
of  that  class  is  supposed  to  take  them  to  a  physician  for  exam- 
ination sometime  during  the  year.  Commonly  the  physicians  do- 
nate their  services  as  the  board  of  education  has  made  no  provi- 
sion for  the  medical  examination  of  these  children.  In  the  judg- 
ment of  the  writer  this  is  a  very  serious  mistake.  No  child 
should  be  assigned  to  an  auxiliary  class  without  first  having  re- 
ceived a  careful  medical  examination.  Many  of  these' children 
are  suffering  from  physical  defects  that  only  the  physician  can 
readily  detect.  No  matter  how  carefully  the  psychological  ex- 
amination may  be  made  it  alone  is  not  sufficient.  Much  mental 
retardation  is  due  to  physical  causes  which  may  be  removed,  but 
only  the  physician,  not  the  psychologist,  is  capable  of  making  the 
physical  examination.  It  is  a  sad  waste  for  a  teacher  to  spend 
energy  in  trying  to  overcome  a  mental  defect  due  to  a  removable 
physical  cause.  At  the  present  time  the  practice  in  most  of  the 
large  cities  is  to  have  the  two  examinations — medical  and  psy- 
chological :  both  are  necessary.  But  not  only  should  every  child 
be  given  a  medical  examination  before  being  assigned  to  one  of 


314  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

these  classes,  but  he  should  be  re-examined  at  least  once  a  year 
as  long  as  he  remains  in  the  auxiliary  class. 

(3)   Equipment. 

The  auxiliary  school  is  housed  in  an  old  building  that  is  too 
small  and  poorly  arranged  for  the  work  that  is  being  attempted. 
The  playground  in  connection  with  the  school  building  is  also  too 
small,  and  the  school  garden  is  so  small  that  it  can  be  used  only 
for  demonstration  purposes.  The  school  building  is  not  centrally 
located  so  that  most  of  the  children  are  compelled  to  take  the 
street  car  to  and  from  school.  As  far  as  the  equipment  for  the 
school  work  proper  is  concerned  it  is  satisfactory.  It  would  not 
be  advisable  to  make  any  marked  increase  in  equipment  without 
erecting  a  new  building.  It  seems  to  the  writer  that  the  solution 
of  the  problem  here  is  not  to  erect  a  new  building  but  rather  to 
use  the  present  building  for  the  lower-grade  mental  defectives 
and  provide  for  the  higher  grades  in  the  auxiliary  classes  and  in 
a  school  centrally  located.  If  all  the  lower-grade  children  were 
taken  out  of  the  auxiliary  classes,  it  would  lighten  the  burden  of 
the  auxiliary  class  teacher  by  relieving  her  of  some  of  her  most 
hopeless  cases,  and  by  giving  her  a  more  homogeneous  group 
with  which  to  work.  Furthermore  it  would  be  a  decided  ad- 
vantage for  the  lower-grade  children  to  be  thrown  togther  in  a 
school  of  this  kind  for  they  are  the  ones  that  derive  the  least 
satisfaction,  and  suffer  the  greatest  annoyance  from  associating 
with  normal  children. 

To  carry  out  the  above  suggestions  would  be  to  go  a  step 
further  in  the  direction  of  existing  tendencies,  for  the  auxiliary 
school  at  the  present  time  has  a  larger  percentage  of  low-grade 
children  than  the  auxiliary  classes  which  have  been  organized  in 
connection  with  the  regular  schools. 

Most  of  the  auxiliary  classrooms  are  pleasant  and  satisfac- 
torily equipped.  However,  there  are  some  marked  exceptions. 
At  the  Widdicomb  School  the  auxiliary  class  three  days  in  the 
week  occupies  a  miserable,  poorly  lighted  cooking  room  in  the 
basement,  and  the  other  two  days  a  basement  room  used  for  phy- 
sical training  which  is  only  a  slight  improvement  over  the  cook- 
ing room.  This  is  exceedingly  unfortunate,  as  the  children  are 
working  under  most  adverse  conditions.  In  fact  rather  than*  to 
continue  to  hold  the  class  in  such  a  room  it  would  be  better  to 
abolish  it  entirely,  as  much  needed  as  it  is. 

In  the  Straight  School  the  auxiliary  class  occupies  a  cloak 
room  which  is  totally  inadequate  in  every  respect.  It  is  not  sur- 
prising that  the  teacher  of  this  class  has  decided  to  go  back  to 
regular  grade  work  another  year.  To  teach  all  the  year  in  such  a 


SPECIAL  CLASSES  OF  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  315 

room  must  necessarily  prove  depressing  both  to  pupils  and  teach- 
ers. 

The  room  which  the  auxiliary  class  occupies  in  the  Diamond 
School,  while  much  better  than  the  auxiliary  class  rooms  of 
Widdicomb  and  Straight,  still  leaves  much  to  be  desired  as  it  is 
too  long  and  narrow  and  is  not  properly  lighted.  If  the  auxiliary 
class  is  to  be  regarded  with  approval  by  parents  and  pupils,  it 
should  occupy,  in  every  instance,  a  room  as  good  as  the  other 
classrooms  in  the  school  building. 

Most  of  the  rooms  are  supplied  with  movable  seats,  but  some 
are  not.  It  is  important  that  every  auxiliary  room  be  provided 
with  movable  seats  in  order  that  the  room  may  be  used  for  a 
variety  of  purposes  which  is  impossible  with  the  fixed  seats. 

The  equipment  for  the  regular  school  work  is  on  the  whole 
satisfactory.  The  teachers  for  the  most  part  are  able  to  get  what 
they  need  without  marked  delay.  Neither  are  the  teachers  held 
down  to  the  same  kind  of  equipment  in  every  case.  They  are 
given  opportunity  to  work  out  their  own  ideas  without  undue 
interference  from  above. 

(4)   Training  and  Instruction. 

In  order  to  study  the  work  in  reading,  arithmetic  and  writing 
that  is  being  done  in  the  auxiliary  classes  of  Grand  Rapids  as 
compared  with  the  work  of  similar  classes  in  Detroit,  the  writer 
requested  each  teacher  to  give  pedagogical  tests  to  each  pupil 
in  her  class  of  a  mentality  of  six  or  above. 

The  following  selection  was  used  as  a  reading  test: 
"Rex,  was  a  little  black  dog.  He  was  Kate's  dog.  Rex  ran  away 
from  home  one  day.  His  friend,  the  big  brown  dog  next  door, 
went  with  him.  They  ran  along  all  the  morning.  It  was  nearly 
noon  and  the  dogs  were  hungry.  They  had  not  had  a  thing  to 
eat  since  morning.  Rex  saw  a  rabbit  hop  across  the  road.  His 
friend  saw  it  too.  They  ran  after  the  little  rabbit.  The 
rabbit  tried  to  run  away  but  the  big  brown  dog  ran  faster.  He 
soon  caught  the  rabbit  and  the  two  dogs  ate  it.  They  were  now 
very  tired  and  lay  down  to  rest*.  After  a. while  they  started  on 
again.  Towards  night  they  became  hungry  again,  but  could 
find  nothing  to  eat.  They  wished  they  were  home  to  get  a  nice 
big  bone.  Kate  and  Mary  the  little  girl  next  door,  always  gave 
their  dogs  a  bone  at  night.  At  last  they  saw  a  little  gray  object 
running  across  the  road.  The  dogs  thought  it  was  another  rabbit. 
They  ran  after  it  but  found  it  was  only  a  cat.  Then  they  walked 
on  again  wondering  where  they  were  and  what  they  were  going 
to  find  to  eat.  Soon  the  places  began  to  look  familiar.  They  turned 
the  next  corner  and  there  in  front  of  them  were  their  homes  and 
Kate  and  Mary  at  the  gate  looking  down  the  road.  The  dogs 


316  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

bounded  joyfully  toward  their  mistresses.  How  glad  they  were 
to  be  home  again.  They  were  each  given  a  large  bone  and  were 
so  glad  to  get  home  that  they  decided  never  to  run  away  again." 

The  following  instructions  were  given  to  the  examiners : 
First,  secure  the  name,  age  (date  of  last  birthday),  and  grade  of 
the  subject.  «Now  present  the  story  and  say:  "I  want  you  to 
read  this  story  aloud  until  I  tell  you  to  stop."  Allow  one  minute 
from  the  time  the  subject  pronounces  the  first  word.  After  the 
subject  has  finished  reading  say :  "Now  tell  me  in  your  own 
words  what  you  have  read."  After  the  subject  has  told  as  much 
of  the  story  as  he  remembers  ask  him  the  following  questions : 

"1.  What  was  Rex? 

2.  Whose  dog  was  he? 

3.  What  did  Rex  do? 

4.  What  went  with  him? 

5.  How  long  did  they  run? 

6.  How  did  they  feel  then? 

7.  What  did  Rex  see? 

8.  What  did  the  dogs  do? 

9.  What  did  the  rabbit  do? 

10.  Which  caught  the  rabbit? 

11.  What  did  they  do  with  it? 

12.  What  did  they  do  after  eating  the  rabbit? 

13.  When  rested  what  did  they  do? 

14.  How  did  they  feel  towards  night? 

15.  Why  did  they  wish  to  be  at  home? 

16.  Who  gave  them  bones  at  night? 

17.  What  did  they  see  run  across  the  road? 

18.  What  did  they  think  it  was? 

19.  What  did  they  find  out  it  was? 

20.  What  did  they  wonder? 

21.  How  did  places  begin  to  look? 

22.  What  did  they  see  when  they  turned  the  corner? 

23.  Who  were  at  the  gates? 

24.  What  did  the  dogs  do? 

25.  What  were  they  given? 

26.  What  did  they  decide  to  do?" 

In  addition  to  the  aboy,e  directions  the  examiners  were  instructed 
to  keep  a  record  of  all  mistakes  made.  In  case  the  subject  hesi- 
tated in  pronouncing  any  wrord  the  examiner  was  instructed  to 
pronounce  the  word  for  the  child  and  count  it  an  error.  The 
amount  of  the  story  read  and  reproduced  by  the  subject  was  es- 
timated by  means  of  the  questions  which  cover  the  main  points 
of  the  story.  If  the  subject  read  only  as  much  of  the  story  as  is 
covered  by  four  questions,  and  when  asked  to  tell  in  his  own 
words  what  he  had  read  if  he  answered  two  of  these  questions  he 
was  given  credit  for  having  reproduced  fifty  per  cent  of  the 
story.  And  if  on  being  asked  the  four  questions  he  answered 


SPECIAL  CLASSES  OF  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  317 

three  of  them  correctly  he  was  credited  with  a  reproduction  of 
seventy-five  per  cent  of  the  story. 

The  test  in  arithmetic  consisted  in  giving  answers  to  the 
following  twelve  oral  problems : 

"1.     James  gave  me   two  marbles  and  Arthur   gave  me  one.     How 
many  marbles  did  they  give  me? 

2.  John   had   five   apples   and   he   gave   three   to   his   brother.     How 
many  apples  did  he  have  left? 

3.  If  one  pencil  costs  two  cents  how  much  money  will  it  take  to 
buy  three  pencils? 

4.  If  oranges  cost  two  cents  apiece  how  many  oranges  can  you  buy 
for  four  cents? 

5.  A  farmer  had  four  horses  and  bought  three  more.     How  many 
horses  did  he  then  have? 

6.  William  had  nine  marbles.     He  lost  three.     How  many  marbles 
did  he  have  left? 

7.  How  much  must   I    pay  for   three   tops,   if   one   top   costs   three 
cents? 

8.  If  one  apple  costs  four  cents  how  many  apples  can  you  buy  for 
eight  cents? 

9.  Willie  had  seven  pennies.     His  father  gave  him  six  more,     flow 
many  pennies  did  he  then  have? 

10.  There   were  twelve  apples   on  a  tree.     James  knocked  off  four. 
How  many  apples  were  left  on  the  tree? 

11.  If   marbles   are   worth    four    cents   apiece    how    much   will    four 
marbles  cost? 

12.  If  one  notebook  costs  three  cents  how  many  notebooks  can  you 
buy  for  fifteen  cents?" 

The  examiners  were  instructed  to  read  each  problem  -slowly 
and  distinctly  to  the  subject.  If  the  subject  did  not  understand 
the  examiner  was  to  read  the  problem  again.  The  subject  was 
given  as  much  time  as  he  desired  to  solve  the  problem.  Each 
examiner  was  to  give  each  child  the  twelve  problems  regardless 
of  whether  he  gave  the  correct  answers  or  not.  The  subject  was 
given  credit  for  the  number  of  problems  correctly  solved. 

In  giving  the  writing  test  the  examiners  were  told  to  give  the 
subject  the  following  instruction:  "Write  this  sentence  as  fast 
and  as  carefully  as  you  can  until  I  tell  you  to  stop :  'My  dog 
plays  with  the  ball."  Time  two  minutes.  The  subject  used  a 
pencil  and  wrote  from  a  typewritten  copy  of  the  sentence.  The 
subject  was  given  credit  for  the  average  numbers  of  letters  writ- 
ten in  one  minute. 

In  Table  LXI  are  given  the  results  of  the  three  tests  arrang- 
ed according  to  mental  age  of  the  subjects,  not  only  for  the  aux- 
iliary classes  of  Grand  Rapids,  but  for  those  of  Detroit,  Michigan, 
as  well.  In  addition  the  results  of  testing  one  hundred  and  two 
normal  children  between  seven  and  eight  years  of  age  of  the 
Detroit  schools  are  given  on  the  last  horizontal  line  of  the  table. 

Although  the  table  is  self-explanatory,  it  might  be  well  to 
indicate  the  significance  of  some  of  the  figures  that  appear  in  the 


318 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


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Detroit  

Explanatioi 
chronological  a 

SPECIAL  CLASSES  OF  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  319 

first  horizontal  line  under  the  division  entitled,  "Words  read  in 
one  minute."  The  21  which  appears  under  "M",  the  median, 
means  that  of  the  24  children  tested  between  six  and  seven  men- 
tally that  as  many  read  less  than  21  words  as  read  more  than  that 
number  of  words.  The  numbers  O-58  under  "Range"  mean  that 
the  poorest  member  of  this  group  read  no  words  and  the  best  one 
read  58  words.  The  13  under  "1st  Q.",  the  first  quartile,  means 
that  twenty-five  per  cent  read  less  than  13  words,  and  the  37 
under  "3d  Q",  third  quartile,  means  that  seventy-five  per  cent 
read  less  than  37  words  in  the  one  minute.  From  the  first  and 
third  quartiles  we  see  that  fifty  per  cent  of  the  pupils  read  be- 
tween 13  and  37  words  in  the  one  minute. 

The  marked  similarity  in  the  attainments  of  the  children  of 
like  mental  age  in  Grand  Rapids  and  Detroit  is  most  surprising. 
However,  Detroit  has  slightly  the  better  of  it  as  far  as  the  median 
number  of  words  read  is  concerned,  although  the  difference  is 
not  significant.  In  the  median  number  of  errors  there  is  very 
slight  difference ;  also  in  the  amount  reproduced  the  two  cities 
are  on  a  par.  The  same  may  be  said  in  regard  to  the  number 
of  problems  solved.  However,  when  we  come  to  the  average 
number  of  letters  written  in  one  minute  Detroit  has  the  advant- 
age all  the  way  through.  The  similarity  of  results  obtained  is  all 
the  more  striking  when  we  bear  in  mind  that  in  both  cities  the 
tests  were  given  by  many  different  examiners,  as  each  auxiliary 
class  teacher  tested  her  own  pupils.  In  the  judgment  of  the 
writer  the  marked  uniformity  of  results  under  such  circumstances 
means  that  in  both  cities  the  auxiliary  class  teachers  are  teaching 
these  children  about  as  much  reading,  arithmetic  and  writing  as 
they  can  assimilate.  If  such  were  not  the  case,  we  should  expect 
the  two  cities  to  make  unlike  showing. 

On  the  last  horizontal  line  of  the  table  are  given  the  results 
obtained  by  testing  one  hundred  and  two  normal  children  be- 
tween seven  and  eight  years  of  age  in  the  Detroit  public  schools. 
It  is  interesting  to  note  that  these  normal  children  do  not  make 
as  good  a  showing  as  do  the  auxiliary  class  children  who  are 
between  seven  and  eight  mentally.  In  fact,  the  auxiliary  children 
have  the  advantage  in  each  one  of  these  tests.  But  when  we 
compare  the  normal,  children  with  the  Detroit  auxiliary  children 
who  are  six  years  mentally  we  discover  that  the  results  are  al- 
most identical.  In  other  words,  in  pedagogical  attainments 
the  auxiliary  child  between  six  and  seven  years  mentally  is  about 
on  a  level  with  the  average  normal  child  between  seven  and  eight 
years  chronologically.  We  have  little  reason  to  think  that  the 
psychological  tests  place  the  child  lower  than  he  belongs,  as 
practically  all  the  work  of  recent  years  seems  to  indicate  that  the 


320  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

Binet  tests  rank  the  younger  child  too  high.  If  this  is  the  case, 
than  the  difference  in  pedagogical  attainments  between  the 
normal  child  of  seven  chronologically  and  the  backward  child 
of  seven  mentally  is  to  be  accounted  for  in  two  ways ;  first,  by 
the  fact  that  the  auxiliary  child  has  been  in  school  so  much  longer 
than  the  normal  child  of  the  same  mental  age,  for  nearly  all  the 
children  in  the  auxiliary  classes  are  retarded  two  years  or  more 
mentally;  and,  second,  because  of  superior  instruction,  for  the 
teachers  of  the  auxiliary  classes  are  a  selected  group  commonly 
chosen  from  the  most  successful  grade  teachers  and  in  addition 
have  received  special  training  for  their  work. 

In  looking  over  the  results  for  the  different  auxiliary  class- 
es of  the  Grand  Rapids  schools  the  writer  does  not  find  that  tnere 
is  much  variability  in  medians  for  the  children  of  like  mental 
age,  except  in  the  case  of  one  class  where  the  work  in  reading  is 
considerably  below  the  median  for  the  auxiliary  classes  as  a 
whole. 

From  what  the  writer  saw  and  learned  of  the  handwork  that 
is  being  done  in  these  auxiliary  classes  he  is  of  the  opinion  that 
it  is  up  to  the  standard  of  the  work  in  most  cities  of  like  size. 
The  older  children  are  given  regular  manual  training  work 
in  some  cases  by  the  auxiliary  class  teachers;  in  other  cases  by 
the  regular  teachers  of  manual  training  and  domestic  science. 
In  some  of  the  auxiliary  classes  part  of  the  manual  training  and 
domestic  science  work  is  done  in  the  auxiliary  classroom. 

The  writer  questions  the  wisdom  of  equipping  any  of  the 
auxiliary  or  ungraded  classrooms  for  the  regular  manual  training 
and  domestic  science  work.  When  the  boys  and  girls  of  the  spec- 
ial classes  are  far  enough  advanced  for  this  kind  of  work  it  would 
seem  economical,  instead  of  duplicating  apparatus,  ta  have  these 
children  receive  this  kind  of  training  in  the  regular  domestic 
science  and  manual  training  rooms  which  are  thoroughly  equip- 
ped for  this  purpose.  Then  too  if  the  manual  training  and  dom- 
estic science  work  of  these  special  classes  (auxiliary  and  ungrad- 
ed) were  given  by  the  regular  teachers  of  the  manual  arts  instead 
of  being  given  by  the  auxiliary  or  ungraded  class  teachers,  as  is 
being  done  in  some  schools,  the  work  would  be  much  improved. 
Grand  Rapids  is  fortunate  enough  to  have  some  teachers  of  the 
manual  arts  who  are  very  much  interested  in  the  teaching  of 
backward  and  defective  children,  so  the  problem  of  securing  the 
right  kind  of  teachers  is  not  a  serious  one.  It  would  of  course  be 
necessary  to  have  the  auxiliary  children  given  this  work  in  spec- 
ial classes,  as  they  are  backward  not  merely  in  academic  work, 
but  in  manual  work  as  well.  But  not  only  should  this  work  be 
given  by  special  teachers  of  the  manual  arts,  but  much  more  of 


SPECIAL  CLASSES  OF  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  321 

it  should  be  given  to  the  auxiliary  children  than  they  are  now  get- 
ting. If  possible  one  period  a  day,  instead  of  one  or  two  per 
week,  should  be  devoted  to  this  work. 

If  the  above  plan  were  adopted,  the  children  would  get  not 
only  more  work  in  the  manual  arts  but  they  would  get  it  under 
more  favorable  conditions  as  the  work  would  be  given  in  the 
rooms  thoroughly  equipped  for  that  purpose  and  by  special  teach- 
ers of  those  subjects.  In  the  second  place,  the  teacher  of  the  aux- 
iliary class  would  be  free  to  devote  her  attention  to  the  children 
who  were  not  able  to  take  the  work  in  the  manual  arts,  as  it  rare- 
ly happens  that  a  teacher  has  a  class  sufficiently  advanced  that 
all  can  be  given  this  work  with  profit.  Then  too  it  is  expecting 
much  of  the  auxiliary  class  teacher  to  ask  her  to  be  well  prepared 
in  manual  training  and  domestic  science  work,  as  well  as  being  a 
specialist  of  the  first  rank  in  the  teaching  of  academic  subjects. 
However,  in  event  that  the  changes  suggested  were  to  be  carried 
out  it  would  be  necessary  for  the  teacher  of  the  auxiliary  class 
to  keep  in  close  touch  with  the  work  the  children  are  doing  in 
the  manual  arts  in  order  that  she  might  correlate  that  work  with 
their  other  activities.  She  also  should  have  sufficient  knowledge 
of  basketry,  caning,  modeling,  etc.  so  that  she  could  direct  the 
work  of  the  younger  and  more  deficient  children  along  these 
lines. 

(5)  The  Teachers. 

The  auxiliary  class  teachers  are  well  trained,  enthusiastic  and 
intensely  interested  in  their  work.  In  Grand  Rapids  these  teach- 
ers are  paid  $100  more  per  annum  than  they  received  as 
grade  teachers.  This  has  made  it  possible  to  secure  for  this  work 
some  of  the  best  grade  teachers.  All  the  teachers  of  auxiliary 
classes  have  had  experience  in  teaching  normal  children,  and  all 
have  attended  at  least  one  summer  school  in  preparation  for  the 
work  in  which  they  are  now  engaged.  Furthermore,  these  teach- 
ers receive  one  hour's  instruction  every  week  in  the  correction  of 
speech  defects. 

The  plan  that  has  been  pursued  thus  far  of  selecting  only 
successful  grade  teachers  for  auxiliary  classes  and  requiring  them 
to  make  special  preparation  for  the  work,  as  well  as  enabling 
them  to  continue  their  preparation  while  in  service,  is  to  be  com- 
mended. Only  the  well  trained,  resourceful,  enthusiastic  teacher 
can  hope  to  succeed  in  teaching  backward  and  defective  children. 

(6)  Supervision. 

The  general  plan  of  supervision  is  very  good.  The  super- 
visor requires  the  auxiliary  class  teacher  to  secure  a  photograph 
of  each  pupil  soon  after  he  is  admitted  to  her  class.  This  photo- 
graph is  kept  on  file  at  the  office  of  the  supervisor.  Each  teacher 


322  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

is  expected  to  visit  the  home  of  each  pupil  in  her  class  at  least 
once  during  the  school  year.  And  some  of  the  teachers  make 
many  more  visits  than  are  required  because  of  their  interest  in 
the  children  and  in  winning  the  support  of  the  parents.  The 
supervisor  has  supplied  all  of  the  teachers  with  suggestive  sched- 
ules and  outlines  of  the  work  in  the  different  subjects.  The 
teacher  is  not  supposed  to  follow  these  outlines ;  they  are  simply 
to  help  her  in  arranging  her  work  so  she  may  get  the  best  results. 
Each  teacher  has  a  book  in  which  she  keeps  a  record  of  the  work 
done  each  day.  At  the  end  of  the  month  the  teacher  submits  to 
the  supervisor  a  statement  of  the  progress  of  her  class  in  the  var- 
ious activities  they  have  been  pursuing.  During  the  second  half 
of  the  year  the  teacher  gives  each  child  a  psychological  examina- 
tion, and  at  the  end  of  the  year  she  files  with  the  supervisor  a 
report  of  the  progress  of  each  child  in  her  class  for  the  year. 
Along  with  this  report  she  submits  samples  of  the  child's  work. 
The  supervior  plans  to  visit  each  auxiliary  class  at  least  once  a 
month. 

By  this  plan  of  requiring  each  teacher  to  file  at  the  super- 
visor's office  a  report  of  the  child's  mental  develompent  as  meas- 
ured by  psychological  tests,  and  of  his  pedagogical  progress  as 
measured  by  the  samples  of  work  done,  as  well  as  by  the  judg- 
ment of  the  teacher,  a  very  complete  record  of  the  child's  growth, 
interests,  and  attainments  has  been  secured  by  the  time  he 
leaves  school.  Such  a  record  should  be  of  great  value  in  helping 
to  determine  what  should  be  done  for  the  child  upon  leaving 
school. 

Some  of  the  teachers  complain  that  it  is  a  good  deal  of 
trouble  to  make  out  these  reports,  and  feel  that  perhaps  their 
time  might  be  spent  to  better  advantage.  To  omit  any  of  the 
data  that  are  now  required  would,  in  the  judgment  of  the  writer, 
be  a  great  mistake.  We  know  none  too  much  about  the  back- 
ward and  defective  child  and  the  character  of  his  development. 
Furthermore,  the  data  secured  by  means  of  the  psychological  ex- 
aminations and  from  the  reports  of  the  teachers  have  already 
proved  to  be  of  value  in  connection  with  the  juvenile  court  cases, 
for  during  the  present  year  the  supervisor  of  special  classes  has 
been  asked  to  examine  more  than  fifty  cases  for  the  juvenile  court 
and  many  of  these  cases  either  were  or  had  been  in  the  auxiliary 
classes. 

(7)     After  Care. 

Unfortunately  little  is  done  for  the  children  of  the  auxiliary 
classes  after  they  leave  school.  Some  are  supported  by  friends 
and  relatives,  some  become  wholly  or  in  part  self-supporting, 
some  become  a  burden  to  society,  some  get  into  trouble  and  are 


SPECIAL  CLASSES  OF  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  323 

found  in  juvenile  court,  and  others  get  married  and  increase  their 
kind  so  that  the  auxiliary  class  of  the  future  may  be  well  filled. 
The  after  care  of  the  mentally  defective  child  is  a  problem  that 
is  being  very  generally  discussed  in  many  of  our  cities,  but  no  city 
has  succeeded  in  solving  it.  In  fact,  there  are  two  distinct 
questions  connected  with  the  after  care  of  the  boys  and  girls  who 
are  mentally  defective ;  first,  "How  can  they  become  self-support- 
ing"; and,  second,  "How  can  they  be  prevented  from  increasing 
their  kind?" 

Let  us  consider  the  former  of  these  problems  first.  How 
can  we  do  more  to  make  these  boys  and  girls  self-supporting? 
The  sub-normal  boy  upon  leaving  school  is  not  prepared  for  any 
specific  line  of  work.  He  has  received  merely  a  general  educa- 
tion, but  the  same  thing  may  be  said  of  the  normal  child  upon  fin- 
ishing the  elementary  school ;  he  is  not  prepared  for  any  particu- 
lar line  of  work.  However,  there  is  one  important  difTerence  be- 
tween these  two  types  of  children  that  has  not  been  sufficiently 
emphasized.  The  normal  boy  in  learning  a  trade,  or  entering  a 
profession,  or  on  going  into  business  of  any  kind,  is  competing 
on  equal  terms  with  his  fellows ;  the  sub-normal  individual  never 
is.  If  he  gets  a  position  how  can  he  hope  to  keep  it  in  the  face 
of  normal  competition?  He  cannot  hope  to  compete  successfully 
with  his  normal  fellows  in  any  line  of  work  unless  he  has  some 
advantages  at  least.  It  is  possible  to  give  him  some  chance  by 
preparing  him  for  some  specific  line  of  work  during  the  last  two 
years  he  spends  in  the  elementary  school.  An  attempt  is  being 
made  in  this  direction  in  several  of  our  cities  by  the  establishment 
of  prevocational  schools  where  the  boys  and  girls  are  given  an 
opportunity  to  take  a  maximum  amount  of  work  in  the  manual 
arts.  But  it  seems  to  the  writer  that  we  have  not  yet  gone  quite 
far  enough.  During  these  two  years  these  boys  and  girls  should 
be  prepared  for  some  specific  line  of  work  which  they  can  take 
up  at  once  upon  leaving  school  and  by  means  of  this  work  be- 
come self-supporting. 

Grand  Rapids  has  made  a  beginning  in  the  right  direction  by 
establishing  at  the  Junior  High  School  an  auxiliary  class  for  high- 
grade  boys  where  they  are  given  a  maximum  amount  of  hand- 
work. In  fact,  some  of  them  have  become  very  proficient  in  bas- 
ketry. But  the  question  arises  in  connection  with  this  work  as 
to  how  they  are  going  to  use  this  skill  to  gain  a  livelihood  when 
they  leave  this  class.  Even  most  of  these  boys  are  destined  to 
enter  the  ranks  of  unskilled  laborers  to  compete  on  unequal  terms 
with  their  normal  fellows,  and  consequently  to  lose  out  in  the 
competition.  It  would,  without  doubt,  be  a  measure  of  economy 
for  the  school  board  to  devote  some  building  centrally  located  to 


324  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

the  vocational  training  of  these  high-grade  boys  and  girls  where 
their  academic  training  would  be  continued,  but  where  the  em- 
phasis would  be  placed  on  preparing  them  for  some  trade  or  for 
specific  lines  of  work  in  the  manufacturing  plants  of  Grand  Rap- 
ids. If  all  the  high-grade  boys  and  girls  from  the  auxiliary 
classes  and  the  backward  boys  from  the  ungraded  classes  were 
sent  to  such  a  school  upon  reaching  the  age  of  fourteen  and  were 
to  remain  there  until  sixteen,  a  large  percentage  of  them  would 
become  self-supporting  at  once  upon  leaving  school.  But  one  step 
further  is  necessary,  and  that  is,  to  appoint  some  person  to  act  as 
a  follow-up  agent,  to  see  that  these  boys  and  girls  are  properly 
placed  upon  leaving  this  school.  New  York  has  visiting  teachers 
who  devote  all  their  time  to  visiting  the  homes  of  the  children 
and  in  assisting  in  every  possible  way  to  improve  the  environ- 
ment of  the  child.  Surely  Grand  Rapids  could  use  advantage- 
ously one  such  person  to  look  after  the  auxiliary  boys  and  girls 
who  are  in  school  as  well  as  those  who  have  left  school. 

But  let  us  glance  at  the  second  question  as  to  how  to  prevent 
these  defectives  from  propagating  their  kind.  There  are  two  pos- 
sible ways,  sterilization  and  segregation.  The  former  under  ex- 
isting conditions  is  out  of  the  question,  public  sentiment  is  de- 
cidedly against  it,  and  rightly  so,  it  seems  to  the  writer.  The  sec- 
ond method  is  to  segregate  these  high-grade  boys  and  girls  in 
institutions.  But  where?  Our  state,  institution  is  full  and  has  a 
long  waiting  list.  The  prospects  that  the  State  of  Michigan  will, 
in  the  near  future,  provide  enough  institutions  to  take  care  of  its 
feeble-minded  are  exceedingly  remote.  Relief  can  only  come 
through  the  city  building  such  an  institution.  Such  a  plan  has 
been  advocated  for  several  large  cities,  but  as  yet  no  action  on  a 
large  scale  has  resulted. 

At  the  present  time  it  is  costing  Grand  Rapids  one  hundred 
dollars  per  year  for  each  child  in  the  auxiliary  school.  That  is 
more  than  half  as  much  as  it  costs  to  support  a  defective  child  in 
the  state  institution  for  the  entire  year  of  twelve  months.  In  the 
state  institution  he  is  not  only  fed  and  trained  and  instructed, 
but  in  addition  he  receives  the  best  of  medical  attention  and  leads 
a  much  happier  and  more  useful  life  than  does  the  lower-grade 
defective  in  the  auxiliary  school,  or  the  auxiliary  class ;  he  not 
only  leads  a  happy  and  useful  life  in  the  institution,  but  what  is 
more  important  yet,  he  is  prevented  from  propagating  his  kind. 
If  Grand  Rapids  were  to  secure  near  the  city  a  large  tract  of  land 
and  erect  on  it  cottages  sufficient  in  number  to  provide  for  all 
its  feeble-minded  children  it  would  be  rendering  a  real  and  lasting 
service  to  its  own  community  and  to  the  state  at  large  through 
the  reduction  of  pauperism,  crime  and  feeble-mindedness. 


SPECIAL  CLASSES  OF  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  325 

If  the  generous  and  public-spirited  citizens  who  have  done 
so  much  for  the  auxiliary  classes  and  the  open-air  classes  of  the 
public  schools  would  become  interested  in  this  larger  and  more 
important  problem  a  solution  would  be  possible. 

(8)     Recommendations. 

In  the  judgment  of  the  writer  the  good  work  that  is  now 
being  done  by  the  auxiliary  classes  of  Grand  Rapids  may  be 
improved  by  adopting  the  following  recommendations. 

1.  That  all  children  before  being  assigned  to  an  auxiliary 
class  be  given  a  medical  examination  as  well  as  the  psychological 
examination. 

2.  That  better  class  rooms  be  provided  for  the  auxiliary 
classes  in  Widdicomb,  Straight  and  Diamond  Schools. 

3.  That  all  auxiliary  class  rooms,  not  already  so  equipped 
be  provided  with  movable  seats. 

4.  That  more  work  in  manual  training  and  domestic  science 
be  provided  for  the  auxiliary  classes  and  that  this  work  be  given 
by  special  teachers  of  these  subjects. 

5.  That  the  auxiliary  school  be  used  for  the  children  that 
are  most  defective  mentally. 

6.  That  a  building  centrally  located  be  used  as  a  vocational 
school  where  the  high-grade  boys  and  girls,  and  backward  boys 
and  girls  from  the  ungraded  classes,  may  be  sent  upon  reaching 
the  age  of  fourteen. 

7.  That  a  field  worker  be  employed  whose  business  it  will 
be  to  follow  up  the  auxiliary  boys  and  girls  and  assist  them  in 
every  way  possible,  both  before  and  after  they  have  left  school. 

8.  That  the  city  look  forward  to  the   segregation  of  its 
feeble-minded  in  order  that  the  chief  cause  that  makes  neces- 
sary the  formation  of  auxiliary  classes  may  be  removed. 

b.     Ungraded  Classes 

The  ungraded  classes  of  the  Grand  Rapids  public  schools 
were  first  organized  some  years  before  the  auxiliary  classes  were 
started.  They  have  gradually  increased  in  number  until  at  the 
present  time  there  are  twenty  classes  in  connection  with  fifteen 
schools.  Five  of  these  schools  have  two  ungraded  classes  each. 
Where  two  ungraded  classes  are  found  in  the  same  school  build- 
ing both  may  be  used  for  pupils  of  about  the  same  degree  of 
retardation,  or  one  may  be  for  the  primary  pupils  and  the  other 
for  pupils  from  the  grammar  grades.  The  pupils  that  compose 
these  ungraded  classes  may  be  drawn  from  two  or  three  differ- 
ent schools  or  they  may  all  come  from  the  same  school.  The 
enrollment  in  the  majority  of  these  classes  is  about  what  it  should 
be :  between  twenty  and  twenty-five.  Experience  has  shown  that 


326  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

a  teacher  cannot  handle  advantageously  more  than  twenty-five 
pupils  as  a  maximum.  The  pupils  enrolled  in  these  classes  range 
in  age  from  seven  to  twenty-two.  However,  there  are  only 
three  classes  that  have  any  pupils  under  nine  years  of  age,  and 
more  than  half  the  classes  have  no  pupils  under  eleven  years  of 
age.  It  is  a  significant  fact  that  five  of  these  classes  have  pupils 
over  sixteen  years  of  age.  It  seems  to  indicate  that  the  classes 
are  liked  by  the  pupils,  otherwise  they  would  not  remain  in 
school  after  they  had  reached  the  age  of  sixteen. 

The  pupils  for  these  classes  are  selected  by  the  principals  of 
the  schools  in  which  the  ungraded  classes  are  organized.  This 
means  of  course  that  in  the  majority  of  the  cases  the  backward 
pupils  of  that  school  are  cared  for  first  before  any  are  received 
from  the  neighboring  schools  that  have  no  ungraded  classes. 
And  this  is  only  natural  as  long  as  the  principal  has  complete 
control  of  the  class  in  her  own  building. 

In  the  selection  of  pupils  for  these  classes  the  practice  is  not 
uniform  although,  generally  speaking,  the  policy  is  to  put  into 
these  classes  those  who  by  repeated  failure  in  the  grades  have 
shown  conclusively  that  they  cannot  keep  up  with  their  normal 
fellows.  Then  again  pupils,  on  account  of  illness  or  absence 
from  school,  may  be  put  into  these  classes  temporarily  in  order 
to  make  up  the  work  they  have  missed.  Sometimes  these  pupils 
do  not  sit  in  the  ungraded  room  but  merely  go  to  the  ungraded 
teacher  to  recite  in  the  subject  or  subjects  in  which  they  are 
behind. 

As  a  result  of  the  different  methods  of  selection  there  are 
in  these  ungraded  classes  children  ranging  in  mentality  from 
those  of  more  than  average  ability,  who  are  in  the  class  for  a 
short  period  of  time,  to  those  who  are  strictly  feeble-minded.  It 
is  conceded  by  many  of  the  teachers  that  they  have  one  or  more 
feeble-minded  pupils  in  their  classes.  Very  few  of  the  children 
in  these  classes  have  had  either  a  medical  or  psychological  exami- 
nation. 

The  equipment  of  the  ungraded  classrooms  is,  for  the  most 
part,  like  that  of  the  regular  grade  rooms.  However,  there  are 
some  marked  exceptions.  Some  of  the  rooms  are  equippd  for 
handwork  of  different  kinds,  and  one  room  that  the  writer 
visited  had  a  sewing  machine,  and  a  cobbling  outfit  both  function- 
ing while  pupils  were  attempting  to  study.  Of  course,  the  char- 
acter of  the  equipment  will  depend  on  the  mentality  and  interests 
of  the  pupils  that  are  in  the  class,  as  well  as  on  the  aims  of  the 
teacher. 

Most  of  the  teachers  of  these  classes  have  a  twofold  prob- 
lem— that  of  coaching  children  of  normal  mentality  or  slightly 


SPECIAL  CLASSES  OF  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  327 

less  than  normal  with  the  view  of  returning  them  in  the  course 
of  a  few  months  to  the  regular  grades,  and  the  problem  of  train- 
ing and  instructing  pupils  who  are  so  backward  mentally  that 
they  can  never  catch  up  with  the  normal  child  no  matter  how 
much  assistance  they  may  receive.  In  answer  to  the  question, 
"What  per  cent  of  your  class  will  you  be  able  to  return  to  the 
regular  grades?"  the  majority  of  the  teachers  placed  the  per- 
centages between  twenty-five  and  fifty.  The  range  was 
from  ten  to  eighty-five  per  cent.  It  is  perfectly  evident 
that  the  teachers  of  the  classes  for  ungraded  children  have  in 
some  respects  a  more  difficult  task  than  the  teachers  of  the 
auxiliary  classes.  The  latter  teachers  are  not  expected  to  bring 
any  of  their  pupils  up  to  the  normal  standard,  while  the  success 
of  the  ungraded  class  teacher  is  largely  measured  by  the  percent- 
age of  her  class  she  is  able  to  return  to  the  grades.  Her  work 
is  supervised  by  the  principal  of  the  school  who  is  not  in  a 
position  to  judge  whether  a  given  child  is  not  returned  to  the 
grades  because  of  lack  of  ability,  or  because  the  teacher  has  not 
pursued  the  right  methods  of  instruction.  Then  too  the  teachers 
of  these  ungraded  classes  are  handicapped  in  having  had  no  spe- 
cial training  for  this  kind  of  work.  Only  four  of  the  twenty 
teachers  of  ungraded  classes  have  had  any  special  training,  yet 
in  the  judgment  of  the  writer  they  need  such  training  quite  as 
much  as  the  auxiliary  class  teachers,  and  perhaps  even  more  so 
under  the  existing  methods  of  supervision  that  obtain  in  these 
classes. 

In  the  first  place,  the  method  of  selecting  the  pupils  for  the 
ungraded  classes  is  not  all  that  could  be  desired.  As  the  writer 
pointed  out,  in  discussing  the  superintendent's  policy  of  not 
putting  children  in  the  special  classes  until  they  have  lost  two 
years  or  more,  the  child  has  become  accustomed  to  failure  be- 
fore he  is  put  into  the  special  class  and  the  normal  children  have 
suffered  by  his  presence  during  this  period  when  he  was  making 
extra  demands  on  the  grade  teacher.  But  if  the  children  were 
selected  for  the  ungraded  classes  at  the  end  of  their  first  semester 
in  the  grades,  this  two-fold  loss  would  be  in  large  measure 
avoided.  But  these  children  before  being  assigned  to  an  un- 
graded class  should  be  given  a  medical  and  psychological  exami- 
nation. By  this  method  those  who  stood  most  in  need  of  help 
would  receive  it.  Any  child  six  or  seven  years  of  age  who 
enters  the  first  grade  and  fails  in  the  term's  work  needs  special 
consideration  to  determine  if  possible  the  cause  of  his  failure. 
If  he  is  handicapped  by  physical  defects,  or  if  he  is  subnormal 
in  mentality,  both  the  principal  and  the  ungraded  class  teacher 
should  know  these  facts.  By  such  knowledge  the  teacher  will 


328  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

be  enabled  to  do  the  most  for  the  child.  Each  child  should  be 
tried  out  thoroughly  in  the  ungraded  class  and  if  he  is  found  to 
be  mentally  defective  he  should  be  put  into  an  auxiliary  class. 
As  long  as  there  are  not  enough  ungraded  classes  to  accommo- 
date all  pupils  that  may  fall  behind  in  their  work,  we  should  be 
careful  to  put  into  these  classes  those  children  that  stand  most 
in  need  of  special  assistance.  We  can  never  be  sure  that  the 
wisest  selection  has  been  made  under  the  present  method  of 
choosing  children  for  these  classes.  Furthermore,  under  the 
present  system  of  selection,  the  schools  which  have  no  ungraded 
classes,  but  are  supposed  to  send  their  backward  children  to  the 
ungraded  classes  in  adjacent  schools  are  not  likely  to  get  fair 
representation.  But  if  pupils  were  assigned  to  these  classes 
only  after  they  had  been  given  a  psychological  and  medical 
examination,  then  only  those  would  be  selected  who  stood  most 
in  need  of  individual  assistance.  In  other  words,  the  selection 
of  pupils  for  the  ungraded  classes  should  not  rest  with  the  prin- 
cipal alone,  but  the  principal  and  the  supervisor  of  special  classes 
should  make  the  selection.  And  the  supervision  of  these  classes 
should  be  under  the  control  of  the  supervisor  of  special  classes. 
The  principal  is  not  a  specialist  along  this  line  and  consequently 
should  not  be  expected  to  supervise  a  work  for  which  she  has  had 
no  special  training.  Then  too  she  has  enough  to  do  without  being 
compelled  to  undertake  this  work. 

The  ungraded  class  should  be  a  clearing  house  for  children 
not  getting  along  well  with  their  work.  There  should  be  no 
stigma  connected  with  being  put  into  this  class.  Let  pupils 
understand  that  in  being  assigned  to  this  class  they  are  being 
given  an  exceptional  opportunity  to  make  up  the  work  in  which 
they  are  behind,  and  when  that  work  is  made  up  they  will  be 
returned  to  their  grades.  In  one  school  where  this  method  has 
been  adopted  the  class  is  so  popular  that  it  has  a  waiting  list. 

In  a  school  building  where  there  are  two  ungraded  classes 
it  is  desirable  to  have  one  for  the  primary  grades  and  the  other 
for  the  grammar  grades.  A  grammar-grade  boy  commonly 
resents  being  put  into  the  same  room  with  primary  pupils  even 
though  he  may  belong  there.  Also  in  dividing  them  this  way 
the  burden  of  the  teacher  is  lightened  as  she  does  not  have  so 
many  grades  to  teach. 

Ungraded  classes  are  much  needed  in  the  Hall  School  and 
also  in  the  Plainfield  School.  These  two  schools  had  during  the 
first  half  of  the  present  year  a  larger  percentage  of  repeaters 
than  any  other  two  schools  in  the  city.  Both  buildings  are  over- 
crowded, and  some  of  the  teachers  have  too  many  pupils  to  do  the 
best  work.  In  the  Plainfield  School  the  average  number  of  pu- 


SPECIAL  CLASSES  OF  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  329 

pils  per  teacher  is  over  forty,  while  the  average  per  teacher  for 
the  elementary  schools  of  the  city  is  only  about  thirty.  The 
principal  of  the  Plainfield  School  claims  that  over  twelve  per 
cent  of  her  pupils  are  retarded  two  years  or  more.  And  this  is 
true  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  she  claims  to  have  a  good  corps 
of  teachers.  Evidently  the  size  of  the  classes  in  this  school 
should  be  reduced  and  an  ungraded  class  organized  to  provide 
for  the  backward  pupils  who  are  blocking  the  progress  of  the 
normal  children. 

While  the  writer  appreciates  the  good  work  that  is  being 
done  in  these  ungraded  classes  yet  he  believes  that  work  would 
be  improved  if  the  following  recommendations  were  adopted : 

1.  That  in  the  future  the  majority  of  children  put  into  un- 
graded classes  be  selected  from  the  pupils  who  have  failed  in 
the  first  term's  work  of  the  first  grade. 

2.  That  the  children  for  the  ungraded  classes  be  selected 
by  the  supervisor  of  special  classes  and  the  principal  of  the 
school  to  which  the  child  belongs. 

3.  That  all  pupils  in  the  present  ungraded  classes  be  given 
a  medical  and  psychological  examination,  and  those  found  to  be 
mentally  defective  be  placed  in  auxiliary  classes. 

4.  That  in  the  future  all  pupils  before  being  assigned  to  an 
ungraded  class  be  given  both  a  physical  and  psychological  ex- 
amination. 

5.  That  the  supervision  of  the  ungraded  classes  be  under 
the  direction  of  the  supervisor  of  special  classes. 

6.  That  future  teachers  of  ungraded  classes  be  required  to 
take  special  training  as  is  now  required  of  the  auxiliary  class 
teachers.  9 

7.  That  the  backward  boys  and  girls  of  the  ungraded  classes 
who  show  some  ability  in  manual  work,  upon  reaching  the  age  of 
fourteen  be  sent  to  the  industrial  or  vocational  school,  the  estab- 
lishment of  which  has  already  been  recommended. 

2.    Open  Air  Classes 

At  the  present  time  Grand  Rapids  has  three  open  air  classes 
and  one  open  air  school.  The  three  open  air  classes  are  held  in 
connection  with  the  Sigsbee,  West  Leonard  and  North  Division 
Schools. 

The  Sigsbee  open  air  class  was  organized  during  the  school 
year  of  1911-1912.  This  class  is  conducted  in  a  portable  building 
which  has  been  set  up  near  the  regular  school  building.  The 
class  has  an  enrollment  of  twenty-six,  ranging  in  age  from 
seven  to  fifteen  and  representing  grades  one  to  seven.  The 
children  were  selected  by  the  teachers  and  superintendent  and 
were  required  to  have  a  medical  examination  before  being  as- 


330  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

signed  to  this  class.  For  the  most  part  the  parents  pay  for  the 
extra  food  and  clothing  as  they  are  glad  to  have  their  children 
in  this  class.  All  the  children  who  want  it  are  given  a  cup  of 
cocoa  or  milk  in  the  morning. 

The  West  Leonard  open  air  class  is  also  conducted  in  a 
portable  building  which  has  been  set  up  in  the  school  yard 
near  the  regular  school  building.  This  class  has  an  enrollment 
of  nineteen,  representing  grades  three  to  seven.  These  children 
are  provided  lunch  twice  a  day.  The  lunch,  which  is  prepared 
by  the  open  air  teacher  and  the  principal  of  the  West  Leonard 
school,  is  served  at  nine  o'clock  in  the  morning  and  at  two  forty- 
five  in  the  afternoon.  The  children  pay  thirty-five  cents  every 
two  weeks  to  defray  the  expense  of  food. 

The  North  Division  open  air  class,  or  more  properly 
speaking,  open  window  class,  is  held  in  a  large  room  on  the 
third  floor  of  the  North  Division  school  building.  The  classroom 
has  large  windows  on  three  side  so  there  is  an  abundance  of 
fresh  air.  This  class  has  an  attendance  of  eighteen  pupils.  In 
age  these  children  range  from  seven  to  twelve,  and  belong  to 
grades  one  to  three  inclusive.  Although  this  class  was  started 
in  February,  1916,  when  the  weather  was  very  cold,  only  one 
boy  asked  to  go  back  to  the  regular  school.  The  children  who 
are  in  this  class  come  from  three  or  four  adjacent  schools.  Each 
child  that  wants  it  is  given  a  half  pint  of  milk  in  the  morning 
and  another  half  pint  in  the  afternoon. 

Before  the  Walker  School  was  converted  into  an  open  win- 
dow school  the  consent  of  the  parents  of  the  pupils  was  obtained. 
Extra  clothing  was  provided  a*id  the  windows  were  then  kept 
open  during  the  entire  year.  The  children  were  furnished  milk 
every  day.  The  superintendent  in  his  report  for  1913-1914  says : 
"If  the  Walker  School  had  not  been  made  into  an  open  air 
building  I  doubt  if  school  could  have  been  kept  there  because  the 
building  is  so  old  and  dilapidated  that  it  is  impossible  to  keep 
the  building  warm  in  severe  weather.  As  it  is,  with  the  children 
supplied  with  extra  clothing,  the  windows  can  be  opened  and 
the  children  are  comfortable  and  happy.  Never  in  the  history 
of  the  school  has  there  been  so  little  sickness  as  this  last  year, 
and  the  work  of  the  children  has  been  improved  by  the  open  air. 
I  am  not  exaggerating  when  I  say  that  they  do  not  look  like  the 
same  set  of  children,  they  have  improved  in  health,  in  work,  in 
looks,  in  attendance — in  every  possible  way." 

The  food  and  extra  clothing  for  the  three  open  air  classes 
and  for  the  open  window  school  have  been  furnished  in  large  part 
by  the  Fortnightly  Club,  an  organization  composed  of  generous 


SPECIAL  CLASSES  OF  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  331 

and   public-spirited   women   who   have   rendered   invaluable   as- 
sistance in  developing  the  auxiliary  and  open  air  classes. 

Without  question  the  open  air  classes  as  well  as  the  open 
window  school  have  proved  to  be  a  decided  success.  But  this 
is  the  experience  of  all  cities  that  have  given  the  open  air  class 
a  fair  trial.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  the  value  of  these  classes  has 
been  established.  The  question  is  as  to  the  character  of  their 
future  development. 

Grand  Rapids  has  between  one  hundred  and  one  hundred  and 
ten  pupils  enrolled  in  the  three  open  air  classes  and  open  window 
school.  The  estimate  most  commonly  made  is  that  from  two 
to  five  per  cent  of  the  school  children  stand  in  need  of  the  open 
air  treatment.  According  to  this  estimate  there  are  in  the  Grand 
Rapids  elementary  schools  from  three  to  seven  hundred  fifty 
children  who  would  profit  greatly  from  the  open  air  treatment. 
How  may  they  receive  this  treatment  at  a  minimum  cost?  It  is 
not  easy  at  the  present  time  to  give  a  satisfactory  answer  to  this 
question  because  of  the  diversity  of  practice.  St.  Louis  in  1915 
completed  an  open  air  school  the  equipment  of  which  alone  cost 
three  thousand  dollars.  This  school  is  supplied  with  baths, 
lunch  rooms,  and  dental  clinic.  It  opened  with  a  corps  of  six 
teachers  and  an  enrollment  of  one  hundred  twenty-one  pupils. 
On  the  other  hand,  Supt.  Dyer,  of  Boston,  in  his  report  for  the 
school  year  1914-1915  referring  to  the  tubercular  and  anemic 
children  says,  "These  are  in  fifteen  open-air  rooms,  which  are,  as 
a  rule,  equipped  for  the  purpose  with  wraps,  reclining  chairs,  and 
luncheon  facilities.  There  seems  to  be  no  tendency  to  increase 
the  number  of  these  rooms.  So  much  attention  has  been  given 
to  ventilation  of  our  school  rooms  by  the  open-window  method 
that  teachers  feel  most  of  their  rooms  are,  to  all  intents,  open  air 
rooms,  and  the  principals  who  make  comparisons  between  the 
children  in  the  open  air  rooms  and  those  under  ordinary  condi- 
tions are  coming  to  the  conclusion  after  many  years  of  trial  that 
except  for  markedly  defective  children  the  so-called  open  air 
room  is  unnecessary.  Our  medical  inspector  is  giving  this  mat- 
ter serious  consideration  this  year  but  has  not  as  yet  reached  a 
conclusion  as  to  the  advisability  of  increasing  or  diminishing 
the  number." 

In  the  annual  report  for  the  year  1913-1914  Supt.  Dyer  in  dis- 
cussing the  same  problem  says :  "The  open  air  classes  number 
fifteen  and  these  seem  to  be  sufficient  to  meet  the  need  of  special 
treatment  of  children  who  are  undernourished  and  anemic.  In 
fact,  most  of  our  school  rooms  are  to  a  considerable  extent  open 
air  rooms.  The  provision  that  windows  shall  be  open  at  all 
times  when  the  weather  at  all  permits  and  that  the  rooms  be 


332  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

flushed  periodically  through  the  day  is  very  carefully  followed 
by  almost  all  our  teachers.  The  temperature  is  carefully  watched 
and  except  in  summer  is  rarely  above  68  degrees.  Whether  as  a 
result  of  this  or  not,  the  number  of  children  needing  distinct  and 
separate  open  air  treatment  seems  to  be  diminishing  rather  than 
increasing.  In  most  of  the  open  air  classes  a  luncheon  is  pro- 
vided at  the  smallest  expense  possible  to  the  children.  This 
provision  should  be  made  for  all  the  classes  in  order  that  these 
children  should  have  the  proper  kind  of  nourishment  at  the  noon 
period." 

In  this  same  report  Dr.  Harrington,  head  of  the  department 
of  school  hygiene,  says:  "Besides  the  fifteen  open-air  classes 
for  the  especially  selected  debilitated  children,  the  school  com- 
mittee has  made  an  effort  to  have  every  classroom  an  open-air 
room.  Legislation  bearing  upon  the  temperature  and  regulation 
of  windows  has  been  carefully  observed.  Among  1,065  different 
classrooms  visited  during  February,  March,  and  April,  1004  had 
open  windows.  Nine  hundred  forty-seven  had  a  temperature 
between  60  and  70  degrees  Fahrenheit.  Six  hundred  eleven  had 
a  temperature  of  64  to  68  degrees,  inclusive." 

The  trend  of  development  in  New  York  City  is  also  in  the 
direction  of  the  open  window  classes.  Such  classes  were  rapidly 
organized  during  February  and  March  of  1914  so  that  before 
the  conclusion  of  the  term  there  were  ninety  classes  in  Man- 
hattan. In  discussing  these  classes  in  the  superintendent's  re- 
port for  1913-1914  Dr.  Woodruff,  medical  inspector  of  open  air 
classes  of  New  York  City  schools,  says :  "These  classes  were 
conducted  like  ordinary  classes,  except  that  the  classrooms  were 
cut  out  of  the  ventilating  system,  and  ventilation  was  carried  out 
by  means  of  open  windows.  This  gave,  during  the  winter,  a 
lower  temperature,  greater  humidity,  and  greater  air  movement, 
as  well  as  that. intangible  quantity,  'fresh  air'.  The  classroom 
temperature  was  kept  between  50  and  60  degrees  Fahrenheit, 
when  the  outside  temperature  was  not  higher,  and  50  degrees  F 
was  considered  the  minimum  temperature.  Heat  was  permitted  to 
overcome  unduly  low  temperatures  and  'rawness'  (excessive  hu- 
midity.) Children  were  allowed  to  wear  their  own  wraps  and  hats 
when  they  desired,  but  no  equipment  was  provided.  In  some 
classes  feeding  was  given  at  the  desire  of  teachers  or  principals. 
This  was  almost  entirely  self-supporting.  It  consisted  either  of 
food,  such  as  sandwiches,  brought  by  children,  with  or  without 
milk,  or  else  milk  and  crackers,  procured  by  the  teacher  and  for 
which  the  children  paid.  The  average  cost  when  milk  was  pro- 
cured by  the  teacher  was  about  ten  cents  per  capita  per  week." 

The  following  are  some  of  the  suggestions  made  by  Dr. 


SPECIAL  CLASSES  OF  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  333 

Woodruff  based  on   experience  with   open  window   classes   in 
New  York  City: 

1.  "That  room  is  preferable  for  this  type  of  a  class  which 
has  windows  on  two  sides  so  as  to  insure  open  windows  on  at 
least  one  side,  if  on  account  of  high  winds  or  a  driving  storm 
they  have  to  be  closed  on  the  other.     Rooms  with  sliding  doors 
such  as  those  which  form  parts  of  assembly  rooms  are  not  satis- 
factory.   The  doors  do  not  fit  closely  together  and  this,  together 
with  the  ventilator  above,  creates  too  much  of  a  draft. 

2.  "A  room  with  south  or  east  exposure  gives  best  results, 
as  this  room  is  the  warmest  in  winter  time.     Rooms  with  a 
northern  exposure,  particularly  those  room  in  which  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  keep  the  temperature  at  a  comfortable   point  in   cold 
weather  with  the  windows  closed  are  bound  to  give  dissatis- 
faction. 

3.  "A  minimum  of  50  degrees  F.  seems  to  yield  the  best 
results,  as  under  ordinary  conditions  children  do  not  feel  cold  at 
this  temperature.     On   some  cold  raw  days  without  sun,   the 
temperature  will  need  to  be  higher,  probably  over  55  degrees. 
It  is  well  to  assume  that  shivering  on  the  part  of  any  child  indi- 
cates that  the  child  is  not  warm  enough. 

4.  "If  the  children  come  to  school  with  their  clothing  soak- 
ing wet,  it  is  desirable  that  the  room  be  conducted  as  a  closed 
classroom  until  their  clothing  is  dry,  unless  the  temperature  with 
the  windows  open  is  about  65  degrees  or  higher. 

5.  "The  heat  required  to  maintain  the  temperature  at  ap- 
proximately 50  to  55  degrees,  should  be  obtained  preferably  by 
a  little  heat  from  each  radiator,  rather  than  by  all  from  one 
radiator,  so  as  to  prevent  any  child  sitting  near  a  radiator  from 
being  overheated.    This  is  practicable,  as  in  most  classrooms  the 
radiators  have  valves  which  can  be  controlled  by  the  teachers. 
All  children  should  be  urged  to  wear  sweaters  if  they  can  obtain 
them.    They  should  be  allowed  to  put  on  wraps  or  overcoats  if 
they  feel  the  need  of  them.     Children  with  catarrh  or  running 
ears  or  whose  medical  card  shows  adenoids  should  be  placed  on 
that  side  of  the  room  away  from  the  open  window.    Those  sus- 
ceptible to  catarrh  or  those  near  windows  should  be  encouraged 
to  wear  caps,  regardless  of  appearance. 

6.  "It  is  advisable  that  teachers  dress  appropriately.     A 
thin  wash  waist,  which  is  comfortable  in  a  hot  steam-heated 
apartment,  is  not  sufficient  for  such  a  room,  and  unless  teachers 
wear  flannel  waists  or  sweaters  they  will  want  to  keep  the  tem- 
perature too  warm  for  the  more  warmly  clad  children.    There  is 
a  tendency,  I  think,  for  most  of  us  to  forget  that,  except  in  cases 
of  extreme  poverty,  the  average  public  school  children  who  come 


334  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

from  homes  where  there  is  no  heating  plant  are  accustomed  to 
dress  very  much  more  warmly  than  those  of  us  who  live  in  steam- 
heated  apartments,  where  the  temperature  nearly  always  tends 
to  be  too  high." 

The  experience  of  Boston  and  New  York  seems  to  indicate 
that  if  our  public  school  buildings  were  properly  heated  and 
ventilated  the  need  for  the  strictly  open  air  class  would  not  in- 
crease but  decrease.  The  regular  classroom  is  in  part  creating 
the  conditions  that  the  open  air  class  is  trying  to  relieve.  Ap- 
parently the  most  can  be  accomplished  by  devoting  a  great  deal 
more  attention  to  the  proper  ventilation  and  heating  of  the 
regular  classrooms,  and  using  the  open  air  room  proper  for 
children  that  are  tubercular  or  come  from -tubercular  families. 

The  writer  would  make  the  following  recommendations : 

1.  That  more  attention  be  given  to  converting  the  regular 
classrooms  into  open  window  rooms  in  accordance  with  the  sug- 
gestions contained  in  the  quotations  from  the  Boston  and  New 
York  reports. 

2.  That  enough   open   air  rooms   thoroughly   equipped  be 
furnished  to  provide  for  those  children  who  especially  stand  in 
need  .of  fresh  air,  food  and  rest. 

3.  That  the  children  for  these  open  air  classes  be  selected 
by  physicians,  not  by  teachers.    Only  in  this  way  can  we  be  sure 
that  the  children  who  stand  most  in  need  of  this  treatment  will 
get  it. 

4.  That  future  school  buildings  be  so  constructed  that  they 
can  to  advantage  be  used  as  open  window  schools. 

3.    Truant  School 

The  truant  school  under  its  present  principal  has  a  history 
of  seventeen  years.  The  principal  points  with  pride  to  the  fact 
that  so  many  of  the  former  pupils  of  this  school  are  now  success- 
ful men.  He  insists  that  not  one  of  the  pupils  who  have  attended 
this  school  during  the  seventeen  years  of  his  administration  has 
made  a  criminal  record  since  leaving  school.  If  this  is  the  case 
it  is  a  record  of  which  to  be  proud,  especially  in  view  of  the  fact 
that  this  is  a  school  for  truant  and  incorrigible  boys. 

Boys  ten  years  of  age  or  above  are  admitted  to  this  school 
upon  the  recommendation  of  the  principal  of  any  elementary 
school  and  with  the  approval  of  the  superintendent  of  schools. 
Pupils  also  are  admitted  from  the  parochial  and  private  schools 
upon  the  recommendation  of  the  truant  officer.  When  once  ad- 
mitted they  remain  in  the  truant  school  until  the  principal  thinks 
it  wise  to  return  them  to  the  regular  schools,  or  until  they  have 
reached  the  age  of  sixteen.  The  interesting  fact  is  that  very 


SPECIAL  CLASSES  OF  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  335 

few  of  these  boys  want  to  return  to  the  regular  schools.  The 
writer  asked  the  principal  and  his  assistant  to  leave  the  room 
and  he  had  a  talk  with  the  boys  in  regard  to  the  school.  Only 
three  out  of  the  forty-five  boys  enrolled  said  they  would  rather 
be  in  the  regular  schools,  and  the  reasons  assigned  were  that 
they  did  not  have  enouglf  manual  training  work,  no  recesses, 
and  little  opportunity  to  use  the  playground.  From  the  stand- 
point of  the  boys  the  school  is  eminently  satisfactory.  One  rea- 
son for  the  general  satisfaction  is  the  way  the  school  is  con- 
ducted. It  begins  at  the  usual  hour,  nine  o'clock,  and  continues 
until  eleven  when  most  of  the  pupils  are  excused  to  sell  the 
morning  papers,  which  in  Grand  Rapids  do  not  come  out  before 
eleven  o'clock.  School  begins  in  the  after-noon  at  one  o'clock 
and  most  of  the  boys  are  again  excused  at  three  o'clock  to  sell 
the  afternoon  papers.  Thirty-five  out  of  the  forty-five  boys  en- 
rolled sell  papers.  But  the  selling  of  papers  is  done  under  strict 
supervision.  Each  boy  has  his  corner  and  is  supposed  to  be 
there  at  certain  hours  of  the  day.  The  principal  makes  two 
tours  of  inspection  each  day,  at  eleven  o'clock  and  again  at  three 
o'clock  to  see  that  each  boy  is  at  his  place  of  business.  The 
selling  of  papers  is  considered  a  part  of  the  education  of  these 
boys.  One  reason  the  principal  encourages,  and  in  some  cases 
insists  on  the  boys  selling  papers,  is  that  many  of  them  come 
from  homes  where  the  conditions  are  such  that  they  do  not  get 
enough  food  to  eat.  By  selling  papers  they  are  able  to  earn 
from  one  to  eight  dollars  a  week.  The  principal  also  secures 
positions  for  many  of  the  boys  during  the  summer  vacation  as  he 
believes,  and  rightly,  that  work  is  an  important  factor  in  the 
education  of  these  boys. 

The  truant  school  is  housed  in  three  rooms  in  the  Junior 
High  School  building.  One  of  these  rooms  is  fitted  up  for 
manual  training  work ;  the  other  two  rooms  are  used  as  class- 
rooms and  one  of  these  is  also  used  as  an  office. 

The  boys  enrolled  in  the  school  are  from  ten  to  sixteen  years 
of  age,  and  all  are  in  the  grammar  grades.  In  order  to  determine 
how  these  boys  compare  with  normal  children  the  writer  gave 
them  three  tests  taken  from  Pyle's  "Examination  of  school  child- 
ren". The  tests  used  were  one  of  the  "logical  memory  tests"  in 
which  the  selection  entitled  the  "Marble  Statue"  was  used,  and 
two  tests  of  "rote  memory"  in  which  two  lists  of  concrete  and 
abstract  words  were  used. 

In  memory  for  concrete  words  sixty-seven  per  cent  fell  be- 
low the  standard  of  attainment  for  normal  children  of  like  age; 
in  memory  for  abstract  words,  and  in  the  logical  memory  test, 
eighty-seven  per  cent  failed  to  reach  the  normal  standard.  While 


336  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

too  much  weight  cannot  be  given  to  tests  of  this  character  yet 
the  results  obtained  would  seem  to  indicate  that  on  the  average 
these  boys  are  in  mentality  somewhat  below  children  of  like  age 
in  the  public  schools.  The  writer  gave  a  psychological  examina- 
tion to  one  of  the  boys  who  was  said  to  be  among  the  dullest  in 
the  group  and  found  him  to  test  two  years  below  age.  Evidently 
the  teachers  are  here  dealing  with  a  group  of  boys  some  of  whom 
failed  to  make  good  in  the  regular  school,  not  merely  because  of 
lack  of  interest  and  consequent  irregular  attendance,  but  also 
because  of  poor  ability. 

The  way  the  work  of  instruction  is  divided  the  principal 
teaches  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  and  the  assistant  teacher 
teaches  the  rest.  As  there  are  fifteen  boys  in  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grades  that  leaves  thirty  pupils  for  the  assistant  teacher 
to  instruct.  The  principal  also  has  charge  of  the  manual  train- 
ing work. 

The  writer  is  decidedly  of  the  opinion  that  the  present 
training  and  instruction  that  these  boys  are  receiving  in  the 
academic  subjects  and  manual  training  is  unsatisfactory.  In  the 
first  place,  the  school  day  is  too  short.  The  majority  of  the  boys, 
the  thirty-five  who  sell  papers,  are  in  school  only  four  hours  per 
day.  In  the  second  place,  the  principal  of  the  school  is  devoting 
only  part  of  his  time  to  teaching.  The  boys  of  the  school  are 
getting  very  little  manual  training  work,  simply  because  the 
principal  finds  it  necessary  to  spend  so  much  of  his  time  in 
looking  up  boys  who  are  not  in  school.  He  frequently  drops 
everything  and  starts  out  at  once  to  get  some  truant  boy  whom 
he  has  succeeded  in  locating.  In  the  third  place,  the  assistant 
teacher  has  too  much  work  to  do.  She  cannot  be  expected  to 
handle  to  best  advantage  a  group  of  thirty  or  more,  and  com- 
monly more,  ungraded  boys.  She  is  an  excellent  teacher  and  is 
doing  good  work  and  is  liked  very  much  by  her  pupils,  but  she 
is  being  overworked,  for  she  is  trying  to  do  in  a  short  school  day 
with  a  group  of  ungraded  truant  boys  what  most  teachers  are 
expected  to  do  in  a  longer  school  day  with  a  group  no  larger  of 
well-behaved  graded  pupils. 

One  solution  of  the  problem  would  be  for  the  principal  to 
cease  acting  as  truant  officer  and  leave  that  work  to  the  regular 
truant  officer  and  devote  all  his  time  to  the  work  of  teaching. 
If  the  principal  were  to  do  that,  and  if  the  boys  were  to  give  up 
the  selling  of  papers,  then  the  school  day  could  be  lengthened 
and  the  present  teachers  would  have  the  time  to  do  justice  to 
the  manual  training  and  academic  work.  But  such  a  solution  of 
this  problem  would  be  decidedly  unwise.  The  function  of  a 
school  of  this  kind  is  not  merely  to  train  boys  in  the  conventional 


SPECIAL  CLASSES  OF  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  337 

school  subjects,  but  also,  and  above  all,  to  develop  character,  to 
make  honest  men  out  of  boys  who  got  a  wrong  start.  This  func- 
tion of  a  truant  school  should  never  be  lost  sight  of,  and  the 
principal  has  kept  this  function  clearly  in  view. 

The  careers  of  the  boys  that  have  left  this  school  during 
the  seventeen  years  of  his  administration  are  conclusive  proof 
of  that  fact.  To  have  the  boys  give  up  selling  papers  would  be 
a  decided  mistake.  This  work  is  not  only  enabling  most  of  these 
boys  to  earn  a  little  money  that  is  much  needed,  but  it  is  at  the 
same  time  giving  them  a  training  in  conducting  business  in  an 
honorable  way.  To  have  the  principal  give  up  his  work  of  acting 
as  truant  officer  would  be  a  mistake.  One  reason  the  boys  are 
sent  to  this  school  is  that  they  have  been  irregular  in  attendance. 
The  regular  truant  officer  was  not  able  to  keep  them  in  school 
when  they  were  enrolled  in  the  regular  schools.  We  have  no  rea- 
son to  think  he  would  be  more  successful  with  truants  from  the 
truant  school.  In  Table  LXII  are  given  figures  showing  the 
enrollment  and  attendance  in  the  truant  school  for  a  period  of 
eight  years  as  compared  with  the  attendance  in  all  the  public 
schools  of  Grand  Rapids. 

TABLE  LXII 

Attendance  at  the  truant  school  compared  with  attendance   at   all 
public  schools  of  Grand  Rapids. 

TRUANT  SCHOOL 

Number  Percentage      Percentage  of  Attendance 

School   Year                                in  Attendance  of  Attendance  for  All  the  Schools 

1907-1908    74  96.0  95.8 

1908-1909     64  97.0  96.8 

1909-1910    56  98.1  95.2 

1910-1911 65  97.6  95.6 

1911-1912     58  98.5  95.8 

1912-1913     71  98.5  96.45 

1913-1914    55  98.6  96.07 

1914-1915    58  98.8  96.21 

In  the  first  column  is  given  the  school  year;  in  the  second, 
the  total  number  of  different  pupils  enrolled  in  the  truant  school ; 
in  the  third,  the  percentage  of  attendance  for  the  truant  school 
based  on  the  average  number  belonging;  and  in  the  last  column, 
the  percentage  of  attendance  for  all  the  public  school  of  Grand 
Rapids  based  on  the  average  number  belonging.  ' 

This  table  shows  that  throughout  this  entire  period  the  at- 
tendance in  the  truant  school  has  exceeded  the  average  attend- 
ance for  all  the  public  schools,  and  that  during  the  last  six  years 
it  has  exceeded  it  by  two  per  cent  or  more. 

These  figures  show  conclusively  that  the  principal  of  the 
truant  school  has  been  eminently  successful  in  preventing 
truancy.  But  the  principal  has  succeeded  in  keeping  these  boys 


338  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

in  school  not  only  by  catching  the  truant  before  he  has  had  a 
chance  to  profit  from  his  truancy,  but  also  by  making  the  school 
so  attractive  to  the  boys  that  they  do  not  have  much  desire  to 
play  truant. 

One  striking  fact  is  that  so  few  of  the  boys  that  are  sent 
from  Grand  Rapids  to  the  Industrial  School  at  Lansing  have 
ever  been  in  the  truant  school.  It  seems  to  indicate  that  most, 
or  at  least  a  majority,  of  the  worst  cases  never  are  sent  to  the 
truant  school.  Apparently  the  method  of  selecting  boys  for 
this  school  is  not  all  that  could  be  desired.  If  boys  are  sent  to 
the  truant  school  simply  because  they  have  been  irregular  in 
attendance,  because  they  did  not  like  school,  or  if  they  are  sent 
to  the  truant  school  simply  because  they  have  an  abundance  of 
energy  that  causes  them  to  get  into  mischief  then,  without  ques- 
tion, the  truant  school  is  not  getting  the  type  of  child  that  stands 
most  in  need  of  the  kind  of  instruction  and  training  that  a  truant 
school  is  supposed  to  give. 

The  writer  would  make  the  following  recommendations : 

1.  That  pupils  be  committed  to  the  truant  school  upon  the 
joint  recommendation  of  the  principal  of  the  elementary  school 
from  which   the   child  comes,   and  the  principal   of  the   truant 
school,  with  the  approval  of  the  superintendent.     The  principal 
of  the  truant  school,  because  of  his  knowledge  of  boys  in  general, 
and  because  of  his  knowledge  of  what  many  of  the  boys  are 
doing  and  the  type  of  place  they  are  frequenting  after  school 
hours,  is  in  a  position  to  render  valuable  assistance  in  the  selec- 
tion of  boys  for  the  truant  school. 

2.  That  a  man  assistant  be  appointed  to  assist  in  the  work 
of  teaching  at  the  truant  school,  in  order  that  the  present  assist- 
ant may  be  relieved  of  some  of  her  work,  and  in  order  that  the 
principal  of  the  truant  school  may  have  more  time  to  investigate 
the  cases  that  are  proposed  for  admission  to  the  school,  to  direct 
and  supervise  the  activities  of  the  boys  outside  of  school  hours, 
and   to   secure   positions   for   them   during  vacations   and   upon 
leaving  school.     The  writer  is  convinced  that  the  principal  can 
render  a  much  greater  service  by  using  his  time  in  this  way  than 
by  devoting  it  all  to  teaching  in  the  school,  for  the  work  sug- 
gested above  can  be  done  successfully  only  by  one  who  under- 
stands boys  thoroughly,  and  who  is  in  sympathy  with  them. 

3.  That  the  truant  school  open  at  eight  o'clock  in  the  morn- 
ing and  close  at  eleven,  and  open  in  the  afternoon   at  twelve 
forty-five  and  close  at  three  o'clock.     By  adopting  these  changes 
the  work  of  selling  papers  would  not  be  interfered  with,  and  the 


SPECIAL  CLASSES  OF  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  339 

school  day  would  then  be  of  the  same  length  as  that  of  the 
regular  schools. 

4.  That  the  boys  be   given  more   manual   training  work, 
better  opportunities   to   use  the  playground,   and  that  bathing- 
facilities  be  provided. 

5.  That  all  pupils  upon  admission  to  this  school  be  given 
a.  -careful  psychological  and  medical  examination. 

6.  That  each  year  the  principal  of  the  truant  school  submit 
to  the  superintendent  of  schools  a  detailed  report  of  the  work  of 
the  truant  school. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

BUILDINGS  AND 
EQUIPMENT 

John  F.  Babbitt 

In  any  present  consideration  of  school  buildings  and  equip- 
ment in  Grand  Rapids  it  is  necessary  to  divide  the  buildings 
into  two  classes:  (1)  those  that  represent  the  building  policies 
of  former  boards  of  education,  and  which  are  of  types  no  longer 
constructed  but  most  of  which  must  be  used  for  many  years  to 
come;  (2)  the  buildings  recently  constructed,  which  represent 
the  present  building  policy  of  the  board. 

The  New  Buildings 

Judging  from  the  results  secured,  the  city  is  fortunate  in  hav- 
ing a  school  architect  who  has  thoroughly  familiarized  himself 
with  all  of  the  best  features  of  modern  school-building  construc- 
tion. Buildings  like  the  Franklin  and  the  Sheldon  can  be  com- 
mended in  almost  all  of  their  features.  Questionable  arrange- 
ments are  few  and  slight.  Among  the  striking  features  of  excel- 
lence are  the  following: 

1.  The  school  plant  supplies  the  material  facilities  for  a  very 
wide  range  of  educational  and  community  activities :  classrooms, 
assembly  rooms,  gymnasium,   manual  training  room,  domestic 
science  room,  branch  public  library,  cloak-rooms,  nurses'  room, 
shower  baths,  moving  picture  and  stereopticon  facilities,  social 
center  room,  kindergarten  room,  toilet  rooms,  teachers'  rest  room, 
principal's    office,   rooms   for   ungraded   pupils,   teachers'   lunch 
room,  etc. 

2.  The  building  is  of  fire-proof  construction  throughout. 

3.  The  orientation  of  all  classrooms  is  either  east  or  west, 
and  in  no  cases  north  or  south. 

4.  The  lighting  in  all  classrooms  is  unilateral. 

5.  The  ground  floor  is  sunk  but  little  below  the  general 


BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  341 

grade  level,  thus  permitting  large  windows  and  adequate  lighting 
of  the  rooms  on  the  ground  floor. 

6.  The  ratio  of  window  space  to  floor  area  is  sufficiently 
large  in  all  classrooms. 

7.  The  tops  of  the  windows  are  square  and  reach  as  nearly 
to  the  ceiling  as  practicable. 

8.  In  most  cases  the  mullions  between  the  windows  are  as 
narrow  as  construction  will  permit,  thus  eliminating  bands  of 
shadow  across  the  classrooms. 

9.  Translucent  shades  are  provided  for  the  windows. 

10.  A  carefully  chosen  and  pleasing  tinting  scheme  has  been 
employed. 

11.  The  lighting  is  always  from  the  left  side  of  the  pupils. 

12.  The   rooms   are   thoroughly   ventilated   with   a   modern 
plenum  system,  which  takes  the  air  from  a  good  height  above 
the  ground. 

13.  The  temperature  of  the  air  is  automatically  controlled. 

14.  After  passing  the  coils,  the  warm  air  is  humidified  by 
means  of  a  copper  evaporating-pan  humidifier.    The  per  cent  of 
humidification  is  automatically  controlled  by  means  of  a  humid- 
ostat  in  one  of  the  classrooms. 

15.  In  addition  to  the  indirect  heating  of  the  classrooms  in 
connection  with  the  ventilation,  there  is  also  a  vacuum  system  of 
direct  steam   heating  with   radiators   of   the   wall   type   located 
under  the  windows.    This  direct  radiation  is  controlled  by  ther- 
mostats which  operate  the  diaphragm  valves. 

16.  All  classrooms  are  of  good  standard  size  with  no  space 
wasted  by  making  them  too  large,  as  in  the  majority  of  the  older 
buildings. 

17.  Each  classroom  is  supplied  with  a  cloak-room,  and  a 
closet  for  teachers'  supplies.    Cloak-rooms  are  commodious,  ven- 
tilated, and  lighted. 

18.  The  corridors  are  adjusted  in  width  to  the  needs  of  the 
buildings,  space  being  ample  without  waste. 

19.  Exits  are  sufficiently  numerous,  sufficiently  wide,  doors 
opening  outward  and  provided  with  automatic  panic  bars. 

20.  The  boiler-room,  although  within  the  building,  is  sep- 
arated from  all  other  portions  of  the  building  by  means  of  fire- 
proof construction. 

21.  The  floors  of  classrooms  are  invariably  of  close-grained 
hardwood,  usually  or  always  maple,  and  never  of  pine  or  other 
loose-grained  or  soft  wood.    The  floors  of  corridors  are  of  tinted 
concrete  composition,  and  are  both  pleasing  and  serviceable. 

22.  Adjustable  desks  are  found  in  all  the  classrooms. 

23.  The  blackboards  are  of  slate.     They   are  sufficient  in 


342  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

amount,  without  excess,  and  are  placed  in  the  different  rooms  at 
levels  corresponding  to  the  needs  of  the  pupils  of  different  grades. 

24.  The  ceilings  of  the  rooms  are  of  standard  height. 

25.  Drinking  facilities  of  the  most  modern  type  are  installed 
upon  each  floor. 

26.  Toilet  accommodations  are  placed  on  each  of  the  several 
floors  for  both  boys  and  girls.    All  plumbing  is  of  approved  mod- 
ern, sanitary  type.     There  is  a  thorough  system  of  ventilation 
completely  separate  from  that  of  the  rest  of  the  building.     The 
flooring  is  of  good  composition,  and  the  rooms  are  adequately 
lighted. 

27.  Special  entrances  are  provided  for  the  community  center 
room  and  the  branch  library  room,  which  permit  their  use  with- 
out opening  up  any  other  portion  of  the  building. 

28.  The  building  is  provided  with  a  vacuum  cleaning  system. 

29.  The  buildings  are  pf  simple,  pleasing  architectural  de- 
sign.    They  combine  economy  of  cost  with  good  architectural 
proportion  and  general  appearance. 

30.  The  cost  of  the  buildings  as  compared  with  similar  con- 
structions in  other  cities  is  moderate.    It  is  somewhat  lower  than 
in  Detroit  or  Cleveland ;  considerably  lower  than  in  Newark  and 
St.  Louis ;  and  very  much  lower  than  in  Boston.     It  is  not  suf- 
ficiently low,  however,  to  create  suspicion  as  to  quality  of  mater- 
ials or  character  of  workmanship. 

There  are  a  few  things,  however,  in  the  new  buildings  that 
should  be  considered  in  planning  the  construction  of  future  build- 
ings. While  most  of  the  things  mentioned  here  are  of  minor 
significance,  some  of  them  are  of  sufficient  importance  to  justify 
careful  scrutiny: 

(1)  In  certain  of  the  rooms  in  the  newer  buildings — the 
Lexington,  the  Franklin  and  the  Sheldon — and  in  certain  of  the 
newer  additions,  as  for  example  that  at  the  Alexander  School, 
the  front  wall  of  the  room  is  so  completely  given  to  doors  as 
to  leave  inadequate  blackboard  space  at  the  front  of  the  room 
for  the  teacher,  and  to  make  it  difficult  to  mount  pictures  at  that 
end  of  the  room  where  they  can  be  most  effective.  Much  can  be 
said  in  favor  of  a  closet  for  the  teachers'  supplies  at  or  near  the 
front  of  the  room,  where  they  are  easily  accessible.  But  when 
the  result  of  placing  the  cloak-room  at  the  front  of  the  room  re- 
quires two  additional  doors  at  the  front,  making  three  in  all  as 
in  the  Franklin,  or  four  at  the  front  as  in  the  Lexington  and  in 
the  Alexander  addition,  then  it  seems  clearly  desirable  that  the 
cloak-room  should  be  placed  at  the  back  of  the  room.  If  placed 
at  the  front  it  should  certainly  be  so  arranged  as  not  to  break  the 
front  wall  so  completely  as  is  now  the  case.  It  seems  that  a 


BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  343 

desire  for  architectural  symmetry  has  outweighed  considerations 
of  educational  utility  and  serviceability.  In  all  cases  it  is  the 
work  that  goes  on  within  a  building  that  should  determine  the 
arrangements  within  the  building.  Where  architectural  sym- 
metry and  educational  needs  cannot  be  reconciled,  it  is  the  needs 
of  the  educational  work  that  ought  to  be  dominant.  The  neces- 
sary degree  of  architectural  symmetry  and  good  appearance  can 
always  be  obtained. 

It  perhaps  ought  also  to  be  said  that  building  plans  should 
never  be  adopted  until  they  have  been  carefully  gone  over  by 
those  who  are  to  use  the  buildings  after  its  completion.  Requests, 
suggestions,  and  judgments  of  teachers  and  principals  in  such 
case  do  not  always  show  as  great  familiarity  with  modern  build- 
ing construction  as  is,  desirable.  Nevertheless,  knowing  what 
they  want  to  do  within  the  building  their  advice  is  generally 
worth  listening  to  as  to  the  kind  of  building  arrangements  that 
will  best  serve  their  purposes. 

(2)  The  classroom  bank  of  windows  should  not  be  carried 
so  far  forward.     The  reasons  for  carrying  the  dead  wall  space 
back  eight  feet  at  least  from  the  front  is  that  the  presence  of  win- 
dows too  far  forward  means  an  undue  amount  of  frontal  glare 
upon  the  eyes  of  pupils  in  the  rows  of  seats  nearest  the  windows. 
This  extra  glare  reveals   itself  also  in  undesirable  ways  upon 
the  varnished  desk  tops  and  the  front  blackboard.     If  the  extra 
window  space  is  actually  needed  for  illumination  on  cloudy  days, 
and  is  justifiable  for  that  reason,  it  perhaps  should  be  provided 
with  special  dark  blinds  that  are  kept  drawn  on  days  when  such 
extra  illumination  is  not  required.     This  mode  of  treatment  is 
recommended  for  the  front  window  in  each  of  the  classrooms  of 
the  buildings  recently  constructed. 

(3)  In  buildings  like  the  Franklin,  the  corridors,  especially 
those  of  the  first  floor,  are  not  well  enough  lighted  from  the  out- 
side.   The  placing  of  toilet  rooms  for  both  boys  and  girls  on  all 
floors  is  very  commendable,  but  they  should  not  have  been  placed 
so  as  to  close  both  ends  of  the  corridors  on  each  floor.     This 
space  should  be  given  to  windows,  and  the  toilet  rooms  placed 
at  the  sides  of  the  corridors. 

(4)  Toilet  fixtures  for  the  little  people  on  the  first  floor,  the 
standing  wash  basins,  etc.,  should  be  of  such  a  size  and  height 
as  best  to  accommodate  the  diminutive  stature  of  the  primary 
children.    If  not  uniformly  small,  they  should  be  of  different  sizes. 
Wash  basins  should  be  much  more  numerous  than  at  present, 
provided  with  liquid  soap,  and  with  towels  always  on  the  holder. 

(5)  Both  in  the  purchase  of  the  sites  and  in  the  plans  of 
the  buildings,  provisions  should  be  made  for  the  construction  of 


344  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

additions  in  the  future,  as  the  district  about  a  building  becomes 
more  densely  populated. 

The  Older  Buildings  and  Their  Equipment. 

Some  of  the  older  buildings  are  of  antiquated  and  undesir- 
able types.  The  board  already  has  been  working  for  some  time 
upon  the  policy  of  replacing  them  with  modern  construction. 
The  continuance  of  this  wise  policy  will  in  time  provide  suitable 
buildings  for  every  district  in  the  city.  The  change,  however, 
must  necessarily  be  gradual.  Except  in  a  few  instances  where 
the  buildings  are  highly  unsuitable,  the  older  buildings  must  be 
used  yet  for  many  years. 

The  problem  of  the  board  in  connection  with  these  older 
buildings  is  to  make  them  as  serviceable  as  possible  during  the 
time  that  they  must  still  be  used.  It  must  be  remembered  that 
the  children  going  to  school  within  these  more  ancient  buildings 
are  as  deserving  of  good  accommodations  as  the  children  of  the 
districts  possessing  modern  accommodations.  Since  it  is  im- 
possible to  afford  entire  equality  of  accommodations,  it  is  desir- 
able that  especial  care  be  given  in  the  old  buildings  to  those  im- 
provements that  require  no  fundamental  reconstruction,  and 
which  can  therefore  be  economically  made.  It  is  possible  to  take 
care  of  the  lighting,  the  ventilation,  the  furnishing,  the  decora- 
tions, the  fire  protection,  the  cleanliness,  the  heating,  the  black- 
boards, etc.,  so  as  to  bring  about  reasonable  equality  of  oppor- 
tunity in  these  various  things  throughout  the  city.  In  most  re- 
spects it  must  be  said,  too,  that  commendable  attention  has  been 
given  to  the  various  needs  of  the  older  buildings.  In  all  of  them 
one  finds  recent  adjustments  which  have  been  made  for  the  pur- 
pose of  modernizing  the  structures  and  equipment.  New  toilet 
facilities  have  been  installed.  Ventilation  arrangements  have 
been  made.  New  windows  have  been  cut  in  rooms  formerly  too 
dark.  Unused  basement  rooms  have  been  improvised  for  play- 
rooms, shops,  kitchens,  etc.  Older  types  of  heating  have  given 
way  to  modern  types.  School  yards  have  been  enlarged  through 
the  purchase  of  adjacent  lots.  Modern  playground  facilities  have 
been  provided,  etc.,  etc.  The  writer  was  informed  that  when  the 
present  board  took  charge  of  affairs,  the  buildings  in  general 
were  in  a  deplorable  condition.  The  city  was  years  behind  in 
its  buildsing  program.  In  every  building  one  finds  that  the  pre- 
sent board  has  been  trying  to  overcome  the  accumulated  results 
of  former  neglect. 

The  recommendations  made  in  the  sections  that  follow 
which  look  for  further  improvements  in  the  facilities  provided  in 
the  older  buildings  fully  recognize  the  fact  that  the  present 


BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  345 

board  has  for  some  time  been  working  upon  the  problem  of  im- 
proving the  older  buildings  as  fully  as  the  funds  of  the  district 
will  permit.  Since  their  policies  are  already  so  evident,  our  pur- 
pose here  is  not  mainly  to  suggest  to  them  what  they  ought  to 
do  so  much  as  it  is  to  reinforce  policies  that  are  already  being  ef- 
fectively carried  out. 

In  pointing  to  shortcomings  observed  in  the  older  buildings, 
it  is  not  our  purpose  to  point  out  all  kinds  of  shortcomings.  Many 
of  these  cannot  be  overcome  without  an  outlay  that  is  unwarrant- 
ably large.  When  the  outlay  required  goes  beyond  a  certain 
point  the  district  will  have  to  wait  until  the  building  can  be  re- 
placed by  a  modern  structure,  or  until  an  addition  to  the  present 
structure  can  be  built.  Our  purpose  is  to  point  out  only  short- 
comings that  can  be  remedied  without  fundamental  alterations  of 
the  present  structures.  Where  fundamental  alterations  are  re- 
quired, the  only  thing  to  do  is  to  recommend  an  addition  or  a 
new  building. 

Provision  for  a  Variety  of  Activities. 

When  the  oldest  buildings  were  constructed  education  con- 
cerned itself  with  little  besides  learning  things  out  of  books. 
The  only  activities  for  which  a  building  needed  to  be  equipped 
were  study  and  recitation  activities.  It  was  then  known  that 
many  other  things  were  necessary  for  the  full  development  of 
children,  but  the  schools  had  undertaken  no  responsibility  con- 
cerning these  other  things.  Moreover,  it  was  felt  that  since 
school  buildings  were  for  children  only,  they  were  not  designed 
to  take  care  of  any  type  of  adult  activity. 

More  recently  we  have  conceived,  as  indicated  by  such  good 
practice  as  that  shown  in  the  new  buildings  in  Grand  Rapids, 
that  we  must  take  care  not  only  of  the  activities  of  the  children 
but  of  the  adults  of  the  district;  not  only  of  learning  things 
from  books,  which  is  necessary,  but  also  the  training  that  comes 
from  play,  from  athletics,  from  music,  from  social  activities,  lib- 
rary reading,  shop  activities,  gardening,  etc. 

When  the  principals  in  the  old  buildings  were  asked  what 
they  needed  in  order  more  adequately  to  take  care  of  the  activi- 
ties of  children  and  adults  in  their  community,  demands  every- 
where were  of  similar  tenor :  "We  need  an  assembly  room." 
"We  ought  to  have  a  branch  library  room."  "We  need  a  gym- 
nasium, shower  bath,  lockers,  etc."  "We  should  like  to  have  a 
room  for  our  backward  children."  "We  need  a  manual  training 
room."  "We  need  a  swimming  pool."  "We  need  a  larger  play- 
ground and  a  better  equipped  playground."  "We  need  rest- 
rooms  and  lunch-rooms  for  the  teachers."  "We  need  a  sewing- 


346  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

room  outside  of  the  kitchen."     "We  need  indoor  playrooms  for 
the  children."    "We  need  a  school  garden." 

The  school  board  and  the  professional  people  are  to  be  com- 
mended for  making  vigorous  efforts  everywhere  throughout  the 
system  to  take  advantage  in  the  greatest  possible  degree  of  the 
opportunities  afforded  in  the  school  buildings  of  taking  care  of 
these  various  activities.  In  most  cases  about  all  has  now  been 
done  that  the  older  buildings  will  permit.  In  most  cases  nothing 
remains  to  be  done  but  to  build  additions  or  to  build  a  modern 
structure  in  the  place  of  the  outgrown  one. 

Assembly  Rooms,  Branch  Library  Rooms,  Gymnasium. 

When  the  older  buildings  make  no  provision  for  such  large 
rooms — this  neglect  is  universal  in  the  old  buildings — there  can 
be  no  adequate  remedy  within  the  building  itself  as  it  stands. 
In  such  cases  it  is  possible  for  the  board  to  consider  an  addition 
to  the  building  which  represents  the  first  unit  of  construction 
of  a  new  building  which  is  designed  in  time  to  replace  the  old  one. 
Such  a  plan  would  provide  facilities  at  present  for  the  quite  old 
buildings,  and  yet  retain  the  buildings  for  service  as  long  as  con- 
ditions may  make  this  necessary.  It  means  that  in  the  replace- 
ment of  the  building  a  portion  of  it  might  well  be  built  soon,  and 
the  remaining  portion  of  it  several  or  many  years  hence.  The 
plan  naturally  requires  long  foresight  and  stable  policy. 

As  the  board  provides  new  construction  for  the  city,  one 
thing  to  keep  in  mind — and  the  board  appears  to  be  keeping  it 
in  mind — is  a  general  distribution  of  assembly  rooms,  gymna- 
siums, etc.,  over  the  city  so  that  where  a  district  has 
no  such  accommodations  for  itself  the  accommodations  can 
be  found  in  an  adjoining  district  at  no  great  distance. 
It  is  possible  to  make  one  assembly  room,  one  gymnasium, 
etc.,  for  the  immediate  present  serve  the  needs  of  two  or 
even  three  adjoining  districts.  Naturally,  this  cannot  be  so  sat- 
isfactory to  the  district  that  has  no  accommodations  of  the  sort 
of  its  own ;  yet  in  so  far  as  the  need  is  felt  by  the  district  for  such 
accommodations,  the  plan  may  be  made  fairly  serviceable.  For 
healthy  children  and  adults  to  walk  the  extra  distance  can  do 
them  no  harm.  The  chief  obstacle  is  a  mental,  not  a  physical  one. 
In  the  same  way  that  it  is  possible  to  get  on  with  manual  train- 
ing and  domestic  science  rooms  in  only  certain  of  the  buildings, 
so  it  may  well  be  possible  in  the  immediate  future  with  these 
other  facilities  equitably  distributed  throughout  the  city  to  get 
along  with  those  for  the  next  few  years  in  similar  fashion.  Any 
such  plan  should  be  looked  upon  as  only  temporary,  however; 
and  to  continue  only  so  long  as  conditions  make  it  necessary. 


BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  347 

A  special  word  needs  to  be  said  concerning  the  gymnasium 
accommodations  in  the  Junior  High  School.  The  school  is  so 
large  and  the  need  of  physical  training  opportunity  throughout 
the  entire  year  so  great  that  facilities  for  all  should,  if  possible, 
be  provided  at  the  school  itself.  At  present  within  the  buildings 
there  is  one  gymnasium  room  large  enough  for  the  girls  or  for 
the  boys,  but  not  for  both.  The  building  is  congested  because  of 
the  presence  there  of  the  Truant  school  and  of  many  of  the  ad- 
ministrative offices.  It  would  seem  that  one  or  the  other  of 
these  should  give  way  to  the  needs  of  the  Junior  High  School. 
The  proposed  use  of  the  attic  for  a  boys'  gymnasium  seems  im- 
practicable owing  to  the  nature  of  the  construction.  A  gymnasium 
on  the  fourth  floor  in  such  a  building  would  interfere  seriously 
with  the  class  work  of  the  floor  beneath.  If  the  congested  condi- 
tion makes  it  necessary  for  the. attic  to  be  used  at  the  present 
time,  something  besides  the  physical  training  should  be  placed 
there.  It  is  clear  that  the  Junior  High  School  building  needs  an 
addition  to  provide  for  gymnasium  facilities,  even  if  an  addi- 
tional room  equal  to  the  present  one  could  be  improvised. 
There  are  at  present  no  adequate  dressing  rooms,  no  shower 
baths,  no  lockers,  no  swimming  pools,  etc.  There  is  a  fair-sized 
playground,  and  during  good  weather  it  is  fully  used  for  physi- 
cal training  purposes.  During  the  milder  portions  of  the  year,  it 
is  better  than  an  indoor  gymnasium.  But  Michigan  winters  are 
long,  and  there  are  several  months  in  the  year  when  the  outdoor 
grounds  can  be  little  used. 

.    Cloak-Rooms. 

A  number  of  buildings  have  no  cloak-rooms.  Hats,  wraps, 
etc.,  are  hung  upon  hooks  along  the  walls  of  the  corridors.  It 
is  an  unsightly  and  in  some  degree  insanitary  arrangement.  In 
some  cases  it  possibly  cannot  be  easily  remedied ;  but  in  some 
case  certainly  a  remedy  can  be  found.  This  probably  should  be 
done  in  the  case  of  certain  of  the  more  substantial  buildings  of 
medium  age  that  will  be  used  for  decades  to  come.  It  is  possi- 
ble to  provide  simple  lockers,  wall  wardrobes  with  doors,  or  roll- 
top  front.  Because  of  the  fact  that  the  classrooms  in  almost  all 
of  these  buildings  are  larger  than  what  is  now  considered  a  stand- 
ard size,  such  as  exhibited  in  the  Franklin,  wardrobes  can  be 
placed  at  the  back  of  classrooms  in  most  instances.  In  other 
cases  they  can  be  placed  at  the  side  and  back.  It  is  not  always 
easy  to  provide  ventilating  arrangements  for  such  improvised 
wardrobes ;  but  in  many  cases  this  can  be  done. 

In  many  cases  it  is  possible  to  run  a  partition  so  as  to  cut 
off  a  strip  across  the  side  or  back  of  the  large  classrooms,  and 


348  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

thus  provide  cloak-rooms  and  storage  closets.  Where  practicable 
this  is  better  than  placing  the  cabinet  wardrobes  at  the  back  or 
side  of  the  room.  Where  the  corridors  are  unnecessarily  wide,  it 
is  sometimes  possible  to  utilize  a  part  of  the  corridor  space  for 
this  purpose.  Whether  in  the  corridor  or  in  the  classroom,  it 
is  not  necessary  in  such  improvised  cloak-rooms  for  the  wall 
to  extend  to  the  ceiling.  Since  it  is  not  usually  possible  in  these 
cases  to  secure  the  desirable  separate  ventilation  for  such  cloak- 
room arrangements,  a  wall  six  feet  or  so  in  height  and  finished 
on  top  to  serve  as  a  pedestal  for  decorations  of  various  kinds 
may  well,  be  sufficient.  Such  screen  walls  were  recently  ob- 
served in  one  of  the  best  and  newest  elementary  buildings  in 
Cleveland. 

So  far  as  possible,  classrooms  and  corridors  from  an  aesthe- 
tic point  of  view  should  present  simplicity  of  lines,  colors  and 
decorative  effects.  Wardrobes  or  cloak-room  arrangements  when 
improvised  in  this  manner  require  careful  judgment  to  prevent 
an  unduly  cluttered  and  confused  appearance.  While  utility  in 
such  arrangements  is  the  principal  thing,  it  must  still  be  remem- 
bered that  from  an  educational  point  of  view,  good  appearance 
is  one  type  of  utility. 


Economical  Use  of  Large  Classrooms. 

It  is  generally  agreed  that  ordinary  classrooms  in  elementary 
schools  need  not  be  so  large  as  those  to  be  found  in  almost  all 
of  the  buildings  of  Grand  Rapids,  except  those  recently  construc- 
ted. If  the  opportunity  afforded  by  large  classrooms  to  make 
classes  very  large  is  not  taken  advantage  of  and  abused,  probably 
the  objections  to  the  larger  classrooms  are  not  so  serious  as  some- 
times urged.  If  seats  are  rightly  placed  in  reference  to  the  win- 
dow and  to  the  blackboards,  and  if  too  large  a  class  is  not  placed 
in  the  room,  much  indeed  can  be  said  in  favor  of  the  commodious 
spacious  classroom.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  somewhat  more  ex- 
pensive to  maintain  and  operate  in  matters  of  fuel,  janitor  ser- 
vice, repairs,  etc. 

The  suggestion  that  we  would  make  is  that  the  excess  space 
in  the  large  classrooms  be  employed  for  providing  variety  of 
educational  activity.  ,  In  a  number  of  cases  for  the  grades  where 
sewing  is  taught,  it  would  be  well  to  bring  the  sewing-machines 
out  of  poorly  lighted  basement  kitchens  and  to  place  the  ma- 
chines and  necessary  tables  in  the  excess  space  in  the  large  class- 
rooms. The  simple  laboratory  provision  necessary  for  elementary 
science  could  easily  be  provided  for  within  such  excess  space. 


BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  349 

Heating  and  Ventilation. 

The  mode  of  heating  that  has  been  made  universal  in  all  of 
the  regular  buildings,  of  the  city  is  indirect  heating  of  the  air  fur- 
nished the  classrooms  by  passing  it  through  steam  coils  in  the 
basement,  together  with  direct  heating  by  means  of  radiators 
usually  of  the  wall  type  within  the  classrooms.  The  ventilation 
is  most  frequently  of  the  gravity  type.  This  is  not  and  in  the 
nature  of  the  case  cannot  be  satisfactory.  When  the  difference  in 
the  temperature  of  the  outside  air  and  the  inside  air  is  not  great, 
in  autumn  and  in  spring,  the  circulation  of  the  air  is  very  slug- 
gish. Rooms  were  visited  in  which  the  ventilation  was  very 
unsatisfactory  because  of  this  reason.  The  system  seemed  to  be 
working  as  well  as  it  could  work  under  the  circumstances.  Un- 
der such  conditions  it  is  possible  to  supplement  the  ventilation 
of  the  gravity  system  by  means  of  the  windows.  In  doing  so, 
however,  a  good  deal  of  administrative  care  is  necessary  because 
if  the  windows  are  opened  miscellaneously  in  the  rooms  of  the 
building,  the  working  of  the  gravity  system  is  entirely  deranged, 
especially  if  there  is  any  considerable  wind  blowing.  The  sup- 
plementary use  of  windows  requires  that  they  be  opened  and 
closed  simultaneously  in  all  of  the  rooms  of  the  building. 

Forced  ventilation  by  means  of  a  fan  should  be  installed  in 
every  building  as  rapidly  as  conditions  permit.  In  one  of  the 
buildings,  for  example,  the  old  gravity  boiler  is  to  be  taken  out 
during  the  coming  summer  and  a  new  one  installed.  It  is  not, 
however,  proposed  to  install  a  fan  at  the  same  time.  We  recom- 
mend that  as  such  renewals  are  made  that  fans  be  installed,  un- 
less the  building  is  to  be  replaced  by  a  new  structure  within  a 
relatively  short  time. 

One  finds  evidence  throughout  the  system  that  the  board 
of  education  is  doing  what  it  can  by  way  of  remedying  the  ventil- 
ation deficiencies.  Serious  neglect  of  the  building  situation  many 
years  ago  appears  to  have  presented  to  the  board  the  double 
problem  of  providing  for  current  necessities  as  well  as  making  up 
for  past  deficiencies.  In  a  few  things  like  ventilation,  which  is 
so  closely  related  to  the  health  of  the  entire  younger  generation, 
it  would  appear  that  the  city  should  be  fairly  generous  in  provid- 
ing the  funds  necessary  for  remedying  clearly  discernible  defic- 
encies  left  from  past  management.  Certain  types  of  deficiency 
may  be  deferred ;  but  those  intimately  related  to  the  health  of  the 
young  people  should  receive  immediate  attention.  The  board 
is  short  of  funds  for  doing  the  work.  A  little  present  generosity 
on  the  part  of  the  city  in  supplying  needed  funds  cannot  but  re- 
present prudence  and  economy  in  the  end. 

Especial  attention  needs  to  be  called  to  the  ventilation  in 


350  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

two  or  three  domestic  science  rooms  that  were  visited.  These 
rooms  were  in  the  basements  of  the  buildings  with  no  ventilation 
except  windows,  which  were  small.  Because  of  the  fact  that  the 
windows  are  small  the  cooking  arrangements  need  to  be  placed 
near  the  windows.  Then  when  the  windows  are  open- 
ed for  purposes  of  ventilation  the  gas  burners  are  blown 
out  and  the  cooking  interfered  with.  The  practical  re- 
sult is  that  the  windows  are  kept  closed ;  from  twenty 
to  twenty-five  open  gas  burners  are  burning  and  using  up  the 
oxygen  of  the  air.  The  room  is  also  lighted  at  the  Hall  School 
by  means  of  gas  lights  which  burn  up  a  further  supply  of  the 
oxygen.  The  result  is  such  a  depletion  of  the  oxygen  of  the 
room  that  at  times  the  lights  burn  noticeably  dim,  and  the  air  is 
of  a  sufficiently  undesirable  character  for  breathing  purposes. 
Such  domestic  science  rooms  as  those  at  the  Diamond  School  and 
the  Hall  School  are  imperatively  in  need  of  an  adequate  ventil- 
ation system. 

An  attempt  seems  to  have  been  made  in  all  cases  to  provide 
ventilation  for  the  toilet  rooms.  It  is  generally  of  the  gravity 
type,  and  often  not  very  serviceable.  In  one  building  odors  from 
the  toilet  rooms  were  clearly  distinguishable  in  a  second-story 
classroom,  and  in  more  than  one  case  it  was  possible  while  visit- 
ing classrooms  on  the  first  floor  to  determine  under  which  end  of 
the  corridor  the  toilet  rooms  were  placed  simply  from  atmos- 
pheric evidence.  In  all  cases  examined  the  janitors  seemed  to  be 
doing  all  that  the  building  arrangements  would  admit  of.  In  no 
case  met  with  was  the  deficiency  really  very  serious  at  the  time. 
The  arrangements,  however,  are  such  that  in  certain  buildings 
there  must  be  at  times  serious  annoyance  due  to  imperfect  ven- 
tilation. Doubtless  the  board  and  the  business  management  is 
ready  to  remedy  conditions  as  soon  as  the  community  is  willing 
to  provide  them  with  the  means  for  doing  so.  The  sanitary  ar- 
rangements of  the  toilet  rooms  in  the  matter  of  ventilation  should 
be  made  as  perfect  in  all  buildings  as  they  now  are  in  the  new 
buildings. 

In  the  old  buildings  in  every  case  examined  the  fresh  air 
intake  is  on  a  level  with  the  street,  the  alley,  or  the  adjacent 
playground.  In  many  cases  on  windy  days  a  large  amount  of 
dust  is  unnecessarily  warmed  and  sent  to  all  of  the  classrooms  of 
the  buildings.  In  nearly  all  cases,  the  cold  air  chamber  was  used 
as  a  storage  room.  In  one  of  them  we  found  a  pile  of  sand,  a 
quantity  of  kindling  made  up  of  wood,  bark,  and  the  accumulated 
trash  of  several  months,  old  boxes  and  barrels,  a  large  quantity 
of  dry  modelling  clay,  with  everything  covered  with  a  heavy 
coating  of  dust.  In  only  one  case  was  a  cold  air  chamber  visited 


BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  351 

that  was  not  used  in  some  measure  for  storage  purposes.  In  this 
one  case  the  walls  and  ceiling,  and  even  the  floor  were  newly 
whitewashed.  This  represents  a  condition  that  should  be  gen- 
eral instead  of  highly  exceptional;  but  even  here  the  work  had 
only  recently  been  done,  and  the  air  intake  was  from  a  sandy, 
dusty,  playground.  Even  if  not  used  as  a  storage  chamber,  it 
must  soon  become  a  dust  chamber  through  which  the  air  must 
pass  to  the  lungs  of  the  children  in  the  classroom.  The  cold  air 
intake  should,  wherever  possible,  be  elevated  ten  or  fifteen  feet 
above  the  surface  of  the  earth,  even  in  the  case  of  the  old 
buildings. 

The  Lighting  of  the  Buildings. 

In  occasional  instances  only  are  rooms  supplied  with  too 
small  a  quantity  of  effective  lighting  surface.  Often  it  is  badly 
distributed  over  two  or  three  sides  of  the  room,  but  can  usually 
be  made  to  serve  lighting  purposes  without  serious  alteration. 

In  certain  of  the  buildings  the  window  proper  is  short  and 
has  a  transom  above  it.  Above  the  transom  there  is  a  wide  space 
between  transom  and  ceiling.  The  presence  of  the  transom  en- 
tails some  six  inches  or  more  of  opaque  space  between  the  glass 
of  the  window  and  that  of  the  transom.  In  many  cases  the 
transom  was  frosted  years  ago,  but  is  now  a  dark  gray,  and  prac- 
tically impervious  to  light.  In  certain  rooms  lighted  with  win- 
dows of  this  type,  there  appears  to  be  insufficent  illumination  of 
the  desks  on  the  far  side  of  the  rooms  from  the  window.  Just 
outside  of  more  than  one  such  room  there  are  trees  the  foliage  of 
which  prevents  effective  window  illumination.  Occasionally,  too, 
there  is  a  larger  amount  of  light-absorbing  blackboard  space 
than  is  necessary. 

In  three  buildings,  rooms  were  observed  in  which  the  illumi- 
nation was  from  the  pupils'  right.  In  not  one  of  the  cases  was 
it  really  necessary.  The  desks  need  to  be  turned  around  and 
made  to  face  the  other  way. 

In  very  many  classrooms,  there  are  two  or  three  small  win- 
dows at  the  top  of  the  wall,  at  either  the  back  or  the  front  of 
the  room.  Sometimes  these  are  at  the  front  and  are  of  clear 
glass  with  the  shades  not  drawn.  This  means  a  deleterious 
glare  upon  the  pupils'  eyes  when  they  are  reading  from  the 
blackboard,  or  from  wall  maps  at  the  front  of  the  room.  Over 
such  front  windows  the  shades  should  be  kept  drawn.  Where 
similar  windows  at  the  back  of  the  room  mean  an  injurious  glare 
upon  the  teacher's  eyes,  the  blinds  there  should  also  be  kept 
drawn. 

Rooms  having  such  front  or  back  lighting  are  sometimes 


352  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

so  imperfectly  illuminated  from  the  side  as  apparently  to  re- 
quire the  use  of  these  small  windows  for  purposes  of  illumination, 
especially  upon  cloudy  days.  The  glare  from  the  clear  glass  of 
such  open  windows  is  as  serious  upon  dark  days  as  upon  light 
ones, — possibly  even  more  so  because  of  the  character  of  the 
diffused  light.  Such  rooms  should  probably  be  provided  with 
a  ceiling  that  is  perfectly  white  or  only  faintly  tinted,  and  with 
prismatic  glass  or  some  other  reflecting  device  for  the  small 
windows,  the  purpose  of  which  is  to  throw  the  light  against  the 
white  ceiling  and  the  light-tinted  upper  portion  of  the  walls. 
This  permits  the  entrance  of  the  light,  but  throws  it  downwards 
indirectly,  producing  the  soft  and  very  desirable  indirect  light- 
ing. 

Where  the  back  windows  are  of  full  size  and  because  of  the 
inadequacy  of  the  side  windows  must  be  used  for  the  illumi- 
nation of  a  portion  of  the  room,  arrangements  should  be  pro- 
vided by  way  of  minimizing  the  glare  in  the  face  of  the  teacher 
as  fully  as  possible.  The  glare  is  likely  to  be  chrefly  from  the 
upper  half  of  the  window,  the  lower  half  being  below  the  hori- 
zon line.  A  device  that  tends  to  deflect  the  light  upward  in 
ways  above  mentioned  will  also  here  prove  to  be  at  least  a  part- 
ial solution. 

In  many  cases  the  side  windows  have  transoms  which  were 
painted  years  ago  and  are  practically  impervious  to  light.  These 
side  windows  should  be  utilizied  as  fully  as  possible  for  the 
room  illumination.  Such  transoms  should  be  cleaned  of  all 
paint  and  provided  with  transom  shades,  for  use  when  shades 
have  to  be  drawn.  In  general  such  side  windows  should  not 
have  transoms,  because  of  the  wide  opaque  bar  between  the 
transom  glass  and  the  window  glass.  The  whole  of  the  space 
should  be  a  single  window.  Where  the  side  transoms  are  low, 
it  is  possible  that  they  should  often  be  of  prism  glass  so  as  to 
throw  the  light  to  the  far  side  of  the  room,  or  the  windows 
should  be  extended  upward. 

In  a  few  cases  the  trees,  during  the  months  when  they  are  in 
foliage,  greatly  obscure  the  illumination  of  the  classrooms.  While 
trees  in  the  school  yards  are  desirable,  if  they  are  properly  placed, 
they  are  undesirable  when  improperly  placed.  There  can  be  no 
more  justification  for  placing  a  bank  of  foliage  in  front  of  a  win- 
dow where  the  school  work  requires  good  light  than  there  is  of 
building  a  stone  wall  in  front  of  such  a  window.  The  board  of 
education  has  carefully  protected  the  children  from  the  presence 
of  such  an  obstructing  wall.  They  must  equally  protect  from  ob- 
structing banks  of  foliage. 

Present  and  past  boards  of  education  are  to  be  commended 


BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  353 

for  having-  placed  the  additions  to  buildings  in  such  wise  as 
usually  not  to  obscure  the  lighting  of  rooms  already  constructed. 
A  mistake  of  this  type,  though  not  a  serious  one,  was  observed 
at  the  Hall  School ;  but  it  is  very  rare. 

The  tinting  of  the  rooms  is  not  always  related  to  the  illumi- 
nation. In  standardizing  the  color  schemes  the  authorities  have 
chosen  very  satisfactory  tints,  which  seem,  however,  to  be  ap- 
plied uniformly  throughout  a  building.  Rooms  of  south  illumi- 
nation receive  exactly  the  same  treatment  as  rooms  of  north 
illumination.  Poorly  lighted  corridors  and  cloak  rooms  are 
treated  exactly  the  same  as  rooms  brilliantly  lighted  from  south 
exposure.  It  would  appear  that  rooms  having  only  north  light 
should  have  a  color  scheme  that  is  lighter  and  brighter  and 
warmer  than  rooms  that  face  the  south.  It  would  seem  that 
rooms  having  east  and  west  exposure — the  orientation  that  repre- 
sents the  current  building  policy  of  the  board, — should  probably 
be  intermediate  between  that  of  north  and  south  rooms.  Ground 
floor  rooms  should  probably  receive  slightly  different  treatment 
from  those  of  the  clearer  second  story.  Poorly  lighted  corridors, 
closets,  cloak-rooms,  etc.,  should  certainly  receive  a  treatment 
different  from  that  of  the  well-lighted  outer  portions  of  the 
building.  A  classroom  in  which  the  light  area  is  small  in  pro- 
portion to  the  floor  space  should  be  given  a  bright  tint,  while  a 
room  with  an  excess  of  lighting1  area,  of  which  there  are  several 
in  the  city,  should  be  given  darker  tones. 

The  older  buildings  that  are  to  be  used  for  many  years  yet 
should  be  carefully  studied  by  way  of  making  their  appearance 
light,  bright,  and  attractive.  The  old  school  buildings  are  most 
in  need  of  it.  In  general,  buildings  are  clean,  and  present  a  good 
appearance  from  outside.  Much,  however,  that  could  be  done 
inside  with  white  enamel  paint  has  not  yet  been  done. 

The  window  shades  in  a  few  rooms  visited  were  in  very  bad 
condition  ;  and  in  one  or  two  rooms  there  were  no  shades  of  any 
kind.  It  was  explained  that  the  old  ones  had  worn  out  some 
time  ago,  and  that  their  turn  had  not  yet  arrived  for  receiving 
new  shades.  The  translucent  shades  recently  furnished  are  net 
of  satisfactory  character  for  controlling  the  light  in  certain  of  the 
classrooms,  because  of  their  open  texture.  A  smooth,  non- 
porous  blind  of  white  or  cream  would  not  only  be  more  service- 
able, but  would  give  a  far  better  effect  to  the  appearance  of  the 
room. 

Teachers  appear  often  to  be  negligent  in  the'  management 
of  the  shades.  In  certain  rooms  visited  the  shades  were  not 
drawn  over  the  small  windows  above  the  blackboard  at  the 
front  of  the  room,  although  not  needed  for  illumination  of  the 


354  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

room.  The  same  was  noticed  in  the  management  of  the  blinds 
over  the  small  upper  back  windows.  Where  side"  windows  furn- 
ished the  major  illumination  and  where  this  is  excessive,  as  in  a 
few  cases,  shades  were  not  drawn  with  a  view  to  cutting  off  the 
frontal  glare  in  the  eyes  of  the  pupils  by  lowering  chiefly  those 
at  the  front  of  the  room  and  leaving  the  rear  ones  full  height. 
Rooms  were  sometimes  dark  because  blinds  that  had  been 
drawn  in  the  morning,  when  the  sunlight  reached  the  windows, 
were  left  at  the  same  position  when  the  sun  was  at  the  other  side 
of  the  building. 

In  certain  cases  the  light  in  the  corridors  might  be  greatly 
increased  through  the  use  of  glass  doors  for  the  buildings.  The 
lower  corridor  of  the  Junior  High  School,  for  example,  and  espec- 
ially the  stairs  leading  from  the  lower  corridor  to  the  second 
floor  are  very  dark  on  the  brightest  days.  Artificial  illumination 
is  provided,  but  the  lights  were  not  usually  turned  on  when  the 
building  was  visited.  The  use  of  glass  doors  at  the  front  of  the 
building,  the  removal  of  obstructions  now  in  the  corridors,  and 
a  more  generous  use  of  white  surfaces  would  very  greatly  re- 
lieve the  difficulty. 

The  classrooms  in  the  old  buildings  face  all  directions.  In 
its  new  buildings  the  board  has  wisely  decreed  that  classrooms 
shall  face  either  the  east  or  the  west,  but  not  the  north  or  the 
south.  This  policy  should  be  adhered  to  in  the  building  of  addi- 
tions to  old  buildings.  To  adhere  to  this  policy  in  the  building 
of  additions  it  is  not  always  possible  to  introduce  the  factor  of 
building  symmetry.  This,  however,  is  not  necessary.  All  of  the 
rooms  in  the  recent  addition  to  the  Alexander  building  face  the 
south,  when  they  may  just  as  well  have  faced  east  and  west.  In 
the  new  addition  to  the  Sigsbee,  four  new  rooms  have  only  north 
light. 

Noises 

In  the  construction  of  the  newer  buildings  the  tendency  is 
clearly  discernible  to  place  them  on  streets  where  there  are  no 
car  lines.  A  number  of  the  older  buildings  are  near  car  lines. 
A  few  of  them  are  so  very  near  that  the  work  is  disturbed  by 
noises  and  dust.  As  old  buildings  are  replaced  by  new  ones,  this 
condition  can  be  remedied  by  securing  a  different  site  within 
the  district. 

In  one  case  the  work  of  the  building  seemed  to  be  consider- 
ably disturbed  by  the  noises  from  a  near-by  garage,  livery  stable, 
and  blacksmith  shop.  There  should  be  city  ordinances  that  for- 
bid the  location  of  establishments  of  this  character  within  a 
certain  minimum  distance  from  School  buildings. 

In  general  it  can  be  said  that  'he  buildings  are  so  placed 


BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  355 

that  children  are  not  appreciably  disturbed  by  noises  coming  in 
from  the  neighborhood.  The  writer  can  recall  no  single  case  of 
a  class  having  been  disturbed  by  any  such  noises  during  the 
period  of  his  visit. 

Seating 

The  newer  buildings  are  supplied  with  adjustable  seats  and 
desks  of  modern  kind.  Occasionally  in  the  older  buildings  one 
finds  adjustable  desks.  As  a  rule,  however,  except  in  the  recent 
buildings,  all  of  the  desks  of  a  room  are  of  the  same  size  and  are 
non-adjustable.  Since  the  children  within  a  class  are  never  all 
of  the  same  size,  the  results  everywhere  in  such  rooms  is  that 
some  of  the  larger  children  have  to  work  in  seats  and  at  desks 
that  are  much  too  small  for  them,  and  in  other  cases  the  seats 
and  desks  are  too  large  or  too  high  for  the  children.  In  one 
building  a  whole  sixth  grade  class  was  observed  seated  at  desks 
of  a  size  appropriate  for  fourth-grade  children. 

Adjustable  desks  should  be  furnished  all  of  the  classrooms 
of  the  city.  It  is  not  necessary  to  supply  the  entire  room  with 
this  type  of  desk.  One  or  two  rows  of  adjustables  placed  through 
the  middle  of  the  rooms  will  provide  for  the  necessities  of  the 
children  who  are  exceptionally  large  or  small.  This  has  already 
been  done  in  a  few  classrooms  in  the  city.  It  should  be  made 
universal  until  such  time  as  the  non-adjustable  desks  have  dis- 
appeared. It  may  be  urged  that  the  old  non-adjustable  desks  are 
in  stock  and  that  the  city  cannot  afford  to  scrap  them  until  full 
service  has  been  secured  from  them.  Our  recommendation  is 
not  that  they  be  scraped,  but  that  they  be  so  distributed  through 
the  city  that  every  room  will  have  some  of  the  adjustables  and 
some  of  the  non-adjustables.  Certain  rooms,  especially  in  the 
newer  buildings,  are  equipped  wholly  with  adjustables.  Some  of 
those  could  be  distributed  to  other  buildings,  and  the  non-adjust- 
ables used  in  part  in  the  newer  buildings,  until  such  time  as  the 
city  can  afford  proper  seating  for  all. 

It  is  also  possible  to  place  within  the  classrooms,  using  the 
desks  at  present  in  stock,  one  row  of  desks  larger  than  the  aver- 
age size  used  in  the  room,  and  on^  row  that  is  smaller  than  the 
average  size. 

Seats  and  desks  in  one  of  the  buildings  were  observed  that 
were  very  old,  instable,  and  loose  in  the  joints.  The  surfaces 
of  the  desks  were  so  rough  and  uneven  that  certain  of  them  were 
very  unsuitable  for  writing.  The  wood  presented  evidences 
of  the  setting  in  of  dry  rot.  At  some  stages  in  their  career  seats 
must  be  adjudged  to  have  served  their  day.  Evidently  some  of 


356  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

those  in  the  Michigan  building  have  served  more  than  their 
time. 

In  two  or  three  buildings  large  numbers  of  broken,  unser- 
viceable desks  were  found  stored  in  the  basement.  Since  the 
space  is  sometimes  needed,  since  they  can  only  gather  dust  and 
present  an  undesirable  appearance,  and  since  portions  of  them 
can  be  used  for  the  repair  or  rebuilding  of  desks,  all  such  accumu- 
lations of  broken  desks  should  be  removed  to  the  repair  rooms. 
Rough  desk  tops  can  there  be  re-surfaced  and  re-varnished. 

Special  attention  should  be  given  to  the  seating  of  special 
rooms.  In  the  rooms  for  the  auxiliary  class  in  one  of  the  new 
buildings,  there  were  seats  and  desks  for  twenty-five  pupils,  al- 
though the  class  is  only  about  half  this  size.  It  would  usually 
be  better  to  supply  such  rooms  with  movable  furniture,  chairs, 
tables,  sewing-machines,  work  benches,  etc.  While  certain  of 
the  systematic  handwork  will  be  obtained  in  the  regular  shop, 
kitchen,  etc.,  the  rooms  for  auxiliary  children  should  certainly  be 
equipped  so  as  to  permit  a  large  variety  of  practical  activities. 

Movable  chair-desks  are  now  used  in  certain  of  these  special 
rooms  in  the  city.  In  buildings  where  there  is  a  lack  of  indoor 
play  space  for  rooms  in  which  a  variety  of  special  activities  are 
desirable,  the  movable  chair-desk  offers  large  assistance  in 
the  solution  of  the  problem.  We  recommend  both  to  the  board 
and  to  the  professional  people  a  consideration  of  the  use  of 
movable  furniture  by  way  of  solving  certain  of  the  present  prob- 
lems. 

The  Cleaning  of  Buildings 

In  the  matter  of  cleanliness  all  buildings  presented  a  favor- 
able appearance.  Even  when  the  woodwork  was  old,  roughened, 
and  discolored,  it  appeared  to  be  at  least  clean  and  sanitary. 

Vacuum  cleaning  has  been  introduced  into  all  of  the  more 
recently  constructed  buildings  and  vacuum  systems  have  been 
installed  in  a  few  of  the  older  buildings.  The  systems  were 
observed  in  operation  in  more  than  one  building  and  the  cleaning 
was  proceeding  without  the  scattering  of  dust.  In  two  build- 
ings visited  in  which  vacuum  cleaning  systems  are  found,  dry 
sweeping  with  brooms  and  without  the  use  of  any  sweeping 
compound  was  raising  clouds  of  dust  and  making  the  air  im- 
possible for  healthful  breathing.  It  is  clear  that  certain  of  the 
vacuum  cleaning  systems  in  the  city  need  looking  into.  Where 
a  system  will  not  work,  a  mistake  has  been  made  in  the  original 
purchase,  in  the  installation,  or  in  the  current  management. 
Whatever  be  the  cause  of  the  difficulty,  the  system  should  be 
made  to  work,  or  removed  from  the  building  and  disposed  of. 

Dry  sweeping  is  the  plan  employed  in  all  buildings  that  have 


BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  357 

not  vacuum  cleaning  systems.  In  no  case  observed  were  janitors 
using  sweeping  compounds  either  in  classrooms  or  in  corridors. 
During  the  sweeping  period  buildings  are  rilled  with  dust,  which 
settles  down  upon  the  floors,  etc.,  to  be  kicked  up  by  the  children 
and  breathed  during  the  following  day.  The  use  of  a  good 
sweeping  compound  would  remove  the  dust  from  classrooms 
and  corridors  instead  of  leaving  it  there  for  the  children  to 
breathe. 

Blackboards 

In  the  newer  buildings  and  here  and  there  in  other  build- 
ings one  finds  blackboard  slate  of  good  quality.  It  is  the  best 
type  of  blackboard,  except  that  made  of  glass, — which  is  not  yet 
commonly  used  in  America.  The  objections  to  very  many  of  the 
plaster  blackboards  used  throughout  the  city  and  repainted  oc- 
casionally is  that  they  tend  to  grow  too  "shiny,"  and  because  of 
reflections  make  it  difficult  or  impossible  for  pupils  to  read  black- 
board writing  from  certain  positions  within  the  room. 

In  only  one  building  were  the  blackboards  observed  to  have 
holes  in  them  with  the  mortar  and  sand  coming  out.  Every- 
where else  they  seemed  to  be  in  a  proper  state  of  repair. 

In  the  rooms  of  a  number  of  the  older  buildings,  there  is 
clearly  too  large  a  quantity  of  blackboard  space.  The  wide 
board  at  the  front  may  well  be  retained.  In  such  cases  the 
upper  portions  of  side  and  back  boards  may  be  cut  off  by  a 
moulding  and  the.  upper  portions  of  the  blackboard  tinted  to 
harmonize  with  the  ^all  above ;  or  it  can  be  used,  as  in  many 
instances  at  present,  as  a  panel  for  pictures,  pupils'  papers, 
drawings,  etc. 

In  a  number  of  cases  small  segments  of  the  blackboard  are 
to  be  found  between  back  or  side  windows.  Blackboards  should 
never  be  placed  in  such  position.  They  should  be  removed  or 
painted  the  wall  color. 

Except  for  one  or  two  subjects,  a  large  amount  of  black- 
board space  is  not  desirable.  There  should  be  not  a  single  foot 
more  of  blackboard  than  is  necessary.  An  interesting  device 
was  observed  at  one  of  the  buildings  that  enabled  a  school  to 
have  all  of  the  blackboard  space  that  it  needs  in  times  of  great- 
est demand,  without  making  a  large  amount  of  fixed  classroom 
blackboard  necessary.  The  school  owns  forty  small  blackboards, 
about  Zy2  by  3^  feet,  of  light  wood,  each  mounted  upon  two 
thin  legs,  so  as  to  bring  it  to  the  proper  height.  The  board  can 
be  moved  to  any  desired  position  and  stood  against  the  wall, 
doors,  cabinets,  etc.  When  it  is  no  longer  needed,  it  can  be 


358  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

pushed  into  a  storage  closet.     Being  only  ^g  of  an  inch  in  thick- 
ness, not  a  great  deal  of  storage  space  is  required. 

Floors 

Recently  laid  floors,  whether  in  new  or  old  buildings  ap- 
pear to  be  always  of  close-grained  hardwood, — maple  in  every 
instance  examined.  Pine  or  other  loose-grained  wood  seems  not 
to  be  used. 

Many  of  the  floors  in  the  older  buildings  are  dark  and  un- 
sightly because  of  an  excessive  use  of  oil.  There  are  reasons  to 
think  that  the  floors  in  these  rooms  where  children  spend  so 
many  of  the  formative  years  of  their  existence  should  be  as  clean, 
as  bright,  and  attractive  as  the  floors  in  a  well-kept  home. 

In  most  cases  the  basement  playrooms  have  been  given  a 
good  flooring.  In  two  or  three  buildings  visited,  this  playroom 
had  a  floor  of  cement.  The  dust  of  the  cement  combined  with 
the  dust  entering  from  the  outside  playgrounds  through  the 
windows  makes  the  air  practically  impossible  for  play  purposes. 
All  playrooms  need  a  floor  that  will  not  produce  dust,  and  one 
that  is  not  so  hard  as  cement.  Wood  or  battle  linoleum  such 
as  found  in  the  corridors  of  the  new  South  High  School  should 
be  used.  « 

Toilet  Rooms 

All  buildings  are  supplied  with  automatic  flushing  toilet 
facilities  of  modern  type.  The  rooms  are  usually  sufficiently 
large,  usually  well  lighted.  The  stalls  are  provided  with  doors, 
and  placed  along  the  sides  of  the  room  so  as  not  to  obscure  the 
light  of  the  usually  small  windows  around  the  top  of  the  room. 
An  excellent  quality  of  individual  porcelain  fixtures  with  open 
front  wood  seats  were  the  only  type  observed.  The  ventilation 
has  already  been  discussed. 

A  single  wash-basin  is  the  usual  allowance  provided  each 
of  the  toilet  rooms  throughout  the  city.  In  some  cases  this  is  a 
good  modern  porcelain  standing  wash-basin  with  running  water, 
and  in  other  cases  it  is  nothing  more  than  a  soapstone  sink  with 
no  plug  provided  that  permits  the  holding  of  the  water.  The 
only  possibility  of  use  is  to  hold  the  hands  under  the  faucet,  the 
sink  being  of  use  only  for  catching  the  waste  water  and  carrying 
it  away.  In  a  few  cases  bar  soap  was  found,  and  in  a  few  cases 
there  were  paper  towels  on  the  rack.  More  often,  however,  there 
was  no  soap  of  any  kind,  and  while  paper  towels  seemed  to  be 
commonly  a  portion  of  the  stock  in  the  storeroom,  they  were 
often  not  present  on  the  racks  provided. 

These  washing  facilities  are  inadequate  in  almost  every  way. 


BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  359 

The  soapstone  sinks  are  not  of  the  right  character.  One  to  a 
toilet  room  intended  to  accommodate  several  score  children  at  a 
time  is  wholly  insufficient.  Bar  soap  is  not  much  better  than  the 
common  roller  towel  from  a  sanitary  point  of  view.  The  de- 
ficiency is  to  be  noted  in  the  newer  buildings  as  well  as  in  the 
older  ones.  The  provision  of^toilet  facilities  for  teachers  and 
principal  separate  from  that  of  the  children  is  not  usual.  There 
should  be  such  provision. 

A  very  small  number  of  shower  baths  have  been  installed 
in  connection  with  the  toilet  rooms  in  the  newer  buildings.  In 
most  cases  they  are  not  much  used  because  of  the  lack  of  dress- 
ing booths,  of  curtains  for  the  showers,  etc.  When  the  statement 
is  made  that  it  is  useless  to  provide  bathing  facilities  simply 
because  recent  experience  in  certain  of  the  buildings  show  that 
they  are  not  used,  it  must  be  replied  that  the  proper  conditions 
for  use  have  not  been  supplied  at  the  same  time.  Further 
facilities  are  indeed  needed,  but  they  need  to  be  placed  in  proxi- 
mity to  the  gymnasium,  instead  of  their  present  distribution  and 
location.  After  being  properly  located  they  should  be  provided 
with  dressing  booths,  locker  facilities;  and  the  possibility  of  a 
greater  degree  of  privacy. 

The  Playgrounds 

The  playground  facilities  provided  for  the  use  of  the  different 
schools  are  very  unequal  in  amount.  Certain  of  the  buildings  are 
well'  provided.  At  others  the  playgrounds  are  much  too  small. 
The  board  is  to  be  commended  in  its  policy  of  enlarging  the 
smaller  playgrounds  as  rapidly  as  conditions  permit.  A  good 
minimum  standard  to  set  is  100  square  feet  per  pupil  in  average 
daily  attendance. 

The  surfacing  of  playgrounds  is  a  serious  problem.  The 
grounds  at  more  than  one  of  the  buildings  are  surfaced  with  a 
mixture  of  loose  sand,  gravel,  and  clay.  At  one  of  the  buildings 
visited  on  a  windy  day  great  clouds  of  dust  arose  from  the 
children's  play.  When  the  wind  is  blowing  towards  the  building, 
the  result  is  that  the  ventilation  shafts  and  the  rooms  receive 
too  large  a  supply  of  dust  from  such  a  playground.  In  wet 
weather  the  sand  and  clay  is  carried  into  the  rooms  on  the 
children's  shoes. 

A  number  of  the  playgrounds  need  either  to  be  filled  or  to 
have  more  adequate  facilities  for  draining.  Grounds  should  be 
so  drained  that  they  are  available  for  play  on  practically  every 
day  of  the  year,  except  during  the  time  when  it  is  actually  raining. 


360  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

Open-Air  Rooms 

The  board  of  education  seems  to  have  supplied  no  open-air 
rooms  for  the  anemic  and  tubercular  children  of  the  city.  Neither 
the  old  nor  the  new  building  provide  open-air  rooms.  In  observ- 
ing the  two  open-air  schools  in  connection  with  the  Sigsbee  and 
the  West  Leonard  Schools,  everything  except  the  teacher  and 
the  instruction  supplies  appear  to  be  furnished  by  voluntary  co- 
operative organizations,  instead  of  by  the  board  of  education. 

The  beneficent  results  of  the  open-air  treatment  of  certain 
types  of  children  are  so  evident,  it  seems  that  the  board  should 
consider  whether  it  should  not  arrange  for  at  least  one  sunny 
open-air  room  in  each  new  building  that  is  constructed ;  and  to 
provide  for  such  a  room  here  and  there  in  the  buildings  already 
in  use. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

THE  COST  OF  PUBLIC  EDU 

CATION  IN  GRAND 

RAPIDS 


Harold  O.  Rugg 


Grand  Rapids  is  very  liberal  in  its  endowment  of  public  edu- 
cation. There  are  many  outstanding  facts  which  indicate  most 
definitely  the  extent  of  this  liberality.  It  spends  more  for 
school  purposes  and  devotes  a  larger  part  of  its  municipal 
money  to  schools  than  most  cities  of  the  same  wealth ;  it 
does  not,  however,  take  advantage  of  its  capacity  for  making 
permanent  improvements  through  taxation,  for  it  sells  bonds 
for  such  purposes  when  all  needed  funds  could  be  raised 
through  local  taxation ;  it  provides  a  sufficient  number  of  teach- 
ers to  permit  instruction  of  pupils  in  small  classes ;  it  pays  teach- 
ers better  salaries  than  do  most  other  cities  of  its  class ;  it  does 
not,  however,  endow  supervision  of  instruction  on  as  adequate 
a  basis  as  other  cities  of  its  class ;  while  spending  more  per  pupil 
for  both  business  and  educational  purposes  it  spends  a  larger  pro- 
portion of  its  school  money  on  business  activities  than  do  other 
cities  of  its  class.  In  its  distribution  of  money  for  educational 
activities  it  spends  about  the  same  amount  per  pupil  for  admin- 
istration, operation,  maintenance  and  instruction  but  gives  a 
larger  proportion  of  its  school  money  to  overhead  expenses  and 
upkeep  of  school  plant  than  it  does  to  instruction  and  operation 
of  the  plant.  On  analyzing  its  expenditures  in  detail  we  find 
that  with  the  exception  of  supervisory  activities  Grand  Rapids 
ranks  high  among  cities  of  its  class  in  the  support  that  it  gives  to 
each  type  of  activity;  when  measured  in  terms  of  per  pupil  ex- 
penditure elementary  and  secondary  schools  are  both  more  liber- 
ally supported  than  in  other  cities  of  the  same  wealth;  at  the 


362  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

same  time  a  much  larger  proportionate  amount  of  financial  sup- 
port is  given  to  high  schools. 

Chapter  XIV  of  this  report  will  support  by  detailed  evidence 
and  comment  the  above  statement  concerning  school  finance  in 
Grand  Rapids. 

Definition  of  Various  Terms  Used  in  This  Report. 

1.  Administration.    The  term  administration  will  be  used  in 
this  report  to  denote  the  activities  of  the  central  offices.     These 
include  the  following:     1.  The  superintendent's  office,  including 
assistant  superintendents,  officer  in  charge  of  attendance  and  hy- 
giene ;  2.    The  office  of  the  business  manager  and  the  entire  cen- 
tral staffs  of  the  superintendent  of  buildings  and  the  supply  clerk. 

2.  Supervision  and  Instruction  will  include  the  activities  of 
all  school  supervisors  whether  of  "subjects"  or  of  "grades" ;  all 
principals  and  their  clerks ;  all  teachers  of  whatever  grade. 

3.  Operation  will  apply  to  all  activities  of  operating  the 
plant,  including  for  Grand  Rapids  the  following:     all  work  of 
janitors,  assistant  janitors,  janitresses   and  engineers,   and  any 
other  operating  employees  ;  fuel ;  and  janitors'  and  engineers'  sup- 
plies. 

4.  Maintenance  will  apply  to  all  activities  connected  with 
repairs   to   buildings,   replacement   of   equipment,   etc.,   whether 
concerned  with  labor  or  materials. 

5.  "Capital  Outlays"  will  apply  to  all  activities  connected 
with  permanent  improvements  to  school  plant,  building  of  new 
buildings,  acquisition  of  school  sites,  etc.     In  general  the  terms 
used  will  follow  the  accepted  definition  of  the  National  Associa- 
tion of  School  Accounting  Officers  and  the  United  States  Bureau 
of   Education   in   connection   with   the   "standard   form"   of   the 
Bureau  of  Education  for  reporting  school  financial  facts. 

6.  Current  Expenditure  is  a  term  applied  to  all  expendi- 
tures, exclusive  of  capital  outlay,  incurred  in  the  running  of  the 
public  schools  during  one  year.    It  includes  Administration,  Sup- 
ervision and  Instruction,  Operation  and  Maintenance. 

7.  Under  Business  Purposes  will  be  included  the  activities 
of:     1.  All  offices  in  charge  of  Buildings,  Supplies,  Auditing  and 
Finance;  2.  All  operation  of  Buildings;  3.  All  maintenance  of 
Buildings. 

8.  Under  Educational  Purposes  will  be  included  activities 
of:     1.  The  Superintendent's  offices,  salaries  and  expenses;  2. 
Salaries  and  expenses  of  supervisors  and  principals ;  3.  Salaries 
of  teachers ;  4.  Educational  supplies ;  5.  Textbooks ;  6.  All  other 
"instructional"  expense  for  schools. 

9.  "Average."    In  this  report  all  "average"  expenditures  are 


COST  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION  363 

computed  by  the  commonly  used  "simple  average"  (or  arithmetic 
mean)  obtained  by  adding  up  the  total  scores  and  dividing  by 
the  number  of  cities. 

10.  Cost  Accounting  will  include  all  activities  of:  1.  Distri- 
buting charges  against  buildings,  departments,  and  funds ;  2.  The 
computation  of  current  "unit  costs";  3.  The  preparation  of  cost 
data  for  Grand  Rapids'  activities  in  previous  years  (called  "his- 
torical" cost  studies)  ;  4.  The  preparation  of  comparisons  of 
costs  in  Grand  Rapids  and  other  cities  (called  "comparative" 
cost  studies)  ;  5.  The  interpretation  and  application  of  the  cost 
computations  to  improving  school  practice. 

A.     The  Legal  Basis  of  the  Public  Schools 

At  the  present  time,  the  Grand  Rapids  school  system  is  opera- 
ting under  the  charter  granted  the  city  in  1905,  and  revised  in 
1907,  There  are  four  definite  financial  provisions  in  these  charter- 
ed powers  of  the  Board:  1.  A  statement  of  the  commencement 
of  the  fiscal  year ;  2.  The  time  for  estimating  taxes  for  the  en- 
suing year ;  3.  The  method  of  raising  revenue  and  the  limit  of 
possible  taxation  for  school  purposes ;  4.  The  methods  and  limi- 
tations of  borrowing  money  for  temporary  school  purposes  and 
for  permanent  improvements. 

1.  The  first  two  of  these  provisions  can  hardly  be  said  to 
be  planned  to  aid  the  business  department  of  the   schools   in 
its  annual  treatment  of  educational  data.    The  financial  year  is  to 
commence  April  1st  of  each  year.    This  provision  if  followed  out, 
would  result  in  a  bad  adjustment  of  the  financial  accounting  to 
important  problems   of   school   administration.     A   school   year 
naturally  ends  with  the  month  of  June.    The  annual  reporting  of 
school  facts,  the  determination  of  annual  per  capita  costs  in  terms 
of  pupil  enrollment  and  attendance,  the  estimating  of  supplies 
needed  for  the  ensuing  year  as  determined  by  current  usage,  the 
planning  of  the  various  items  in  the  budget ;  all  these  and  other 
necessary  phases  of  school  practice  concur  in  a  demand  for  a  fin- 
ancial year  coinciding  with  that  of  the  educational  department. 
Notwithstanding  the  chartered  provisions,  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion has  recognized  the  needs  of  the  situation,  and  for  the  past 
ten  years  has  operated  under  a  financial  year  commencing  with 
July  1st. 

2.  Section  12  of  the  revised  charter  (1907)  states  that  the 
Board  shall  annually  make  an  estimate  of  taxes  necessary  for  the 
ensuing  year  on  or  before  the  first  Monday  in  March.     This 
means  that  the  business  department  is  forced  to  undertake  the 
task  of  planning  a  scientific  budget  for  the  ensuing  year  shortly 
after  the  middle  of  the  current  year.     Instead  of  being  able  to 


364  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

rely  on  fairly  complete  expense  data  for  the  current  year,  the 
business  department  is  compelled  to  resort  very  largely  to  data 
for  previous  years.  The  Board  of  Education  should  look  forward 
to  the  time  when  such  a  change  can  be  effected  in  these  provi- 
sions that  both  the  commencement  of  the  financial  year  and  the 
time  of  estimating  taxes  for  school  purposes  can  be  moved  for- 
ward to  more  closely  approximate  the  limits  of  the  school  year. 

j          3.     The  Board  of  Education  of  the  city  of  Grand  Rapids  has 
I  not  the  power  to   levy  taxes   for  the   support   of   schools.     Its 
legal  powers  include  only  the    estimating    of  the  amount  of  taxes 
deemed  necessary  for  such  support.    The  actual   levying  of  taxes 
can  be  done  only  by  the  single  taxing  body  of  the  city,  namely 
the  Common^Qouncil.     It  is  advised  in  its  decisions  as  to  the 
apportionment  of  the  city  budget  and  the  levying  of  taxes  by  a 
Board  of  Estimate,  composed  of  the  mayor,  the  city  clerk,  the 
city  comptroller,  three  members  of  the  Common  Council,  and 
three  citizens  to  be  appointed  annually  by  the  mayor.     In  both 
appointment   and    composition    the    Common    Council    and    the 
Board  of  Estimate  are  political  organizations.    The  business  de- 
partment of  the  Board  of  Education,  during  the  last  ten  years  has 
attempted  to  develop  an  adequate  system  of  budget  making  de- 
signed to  secure  financial  support  that  will  closely  approximate 
-the  real  demands  of  the  system.     (A  more  complete  treatment  of 
Jthis  subject  will  be  taken  up  in  a  later  section  of  this  report.) 
"These  attempts  at  scientific  budget  making  are  defeated  by  plac- 
ing the  levying  power  in  the  hands  of  a  political  body,  elected  by 
wards  and  not  primarily  interested  in  securing  the  best  provision 
for  complete  educational  development  in  the  city.     Officers  of 
the  Board  of  Education  have  recognized  the  needs  of  this  situa- 
tion and  have  considered  ways  and  means  of  effecting  definite 
changes  in  its  legal  status  that  would  result  in  a  more  thorough 
and  scientific  (and  less  political)  control  of  the  annual  school 
/budgetary  and  tax  levying  procedure.    It  is  to  be  regretted  that 
changes  have  not  yet  been  effected  that  will  give  the  Board  of 
tEducation  power  to  pass_finally  upon  the  budget,  and  establish  its 
own  bonding^olicies  in  school  matters.    TKere  are  now  several 
cities  and  a  few  states  in  the  country  that  give  the  power  to  levy 
xschool  taxes  to  the  Board  of  Education.  California,  Ohio  and  Kan- 
sas are  illustrative  of  this  practice.  In  these  cases  there  are  cer- 
tain restrictions  on  the  taxing  powers  of  the  Board,  such  as  the 
statement  of  the  maximum  amount  of  taxes  that  may  be  raised 
on  the  assessed  valuation  of  real  property  in  the  city.     Missouri 
\has  seen  fit  to  give  St.  Louis  and  Kansas  City  full  taxing  powers, 
with  an  upper  limit  beyond  which  they  cannot  tax  themselves  for 
school  purposes,  of  six  mills  on  the  dollar.    The  list  of  cities  in 


COST  OF  TUBLIC  EDUCATION  365 

which  the  Boards  of  Education  have  complete  taxing  power  in- 
cludes Chicago,  Indianapolis,  Cincinnati,  Cleveland,  Boston, 
Denver,  Portland,  and  Seattle. 

The  Limit  of  Possible  School  Revenue. 

^asr' 

In  any  one  year  the  Board  of  Education  can  raise  by  taxa- 
tion not  more  than  five  mills  on  the  dollar  of  assessed  valuation 
for  general  school  purposes.  In  addition,  it  has  what  is  known 
as  a  one-mill  tax.  For  buildings,  new  sites,  and  for  paying  school 
bonds  it  can  raise  an  additional  five  mills  on  the  dollar.  Table 
LXIII  presents  a  detailed  analysis  of  the  property  valuation  and 
the  money  raised  by  taxation  for  school  purposes  during  the  past 
ten  years.  Diagrams  LXXVIII  and  LXXIX  show  the  curves  of 
possible  revenue  for  general  purposes  and  for  permanent  im- 
provements, together  with  the  curves  of  actual  expenditures  for 
these  two  major  purposes. 

Several  outstanding  facts  may  be  listed  as  a  basis  for  dis- 
cussion : 

1.  The  assessed  valuation  of  the  city  has  more  than  doubled 
in  ten  years.    Half  of  this  increase  is  a  result  of  the  recent  reas- 
sessment of  property  values  made  last  year. 

2.  The  amount  of  taxes  raised  for  general  school  purposes 
has  increased  more  than  four  fold  in  ten  years. 

3.  The  amount  of  money  raised  annually  by  taxation  during 
the  past  ten  years  has  been  practically  constant,  (in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  over  a  million  dollars  have  been  raised  by  bond  sales 
for  permanent  improvements). 

4.  There  has  been  a  remarkably  rapid  increase  in  the  num- 
ber of  mills  raised  for  general  purposes,  increasing  from  2.29  and 
1.94  mills  in  1906  and  1907  respectively,  to  5.46,  5.30  and  5.30  in 
1912,  1913  and  1914. 

5.  In  the  past  ten  years  Grand  Rapids  has  never  levied  more 
than  1.89  mills  for  permanent  improvements.    It  has  very  gener- 
ally taken  out  of  the  annual  budget  about  one-third  of  its  priv- 
ileged amount  for  these  purposes. 

The  table  will  bear  more  minute  analysis.  From  1902  to 
1913  the  assessed  valuation  of  property  in  Grand  Rapids  in- 
creased slowly,  averaging  less  than  $3,000,000.00  a  year.  Previous 
to  1902,  in  1900  and  1901,  there  were  large  increases,  $16,000,000 
and  $13,000,000  respectively.  Again  in  1915  a  complete  reassess- 
ment of  property  values  was  made,  raising  the  total  valuation  by 
$50,000,000.  For  the  entire  fifteen  years  the  valuation  increased 
at  an  average  rate  of  $8,000,000  a  year. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  tax  for  general  purposes  has  been 


366 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


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COST  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION  369 

going  up  by  leaps  and  bounds.  In  ten  years  it  has  increased  $550,- 
000,  an  average  of  $55,000  a  year.  The  lack  of  parallel  between 
the  increase  in  general  tax  and  assessed  valuation  of  property 
caused  the  number  of  mills  raised  to  come  dangerously  near  the 
legal  limit  in  1912,  1913  and  1914.  In  1912  it  would  have^been 
possible  to  put  into  the  budget  for  general  purposes  only  $50,000 
more;  in  1913  and  1914  about  $70,000  and  $80,000  respectively. 
At  a  normal  increase  of  $8,000,000  a  year  from  1914  to  1915,  in- 
stead of  $50,000,000  that  the  city  was  given  there  would  have  been 
available  an  assessed  valuation  of  $121,000,000.  To  raise  the  bud- 
get of  $726,000  would  have  required  the  tax  of  exactly  six  mills, 
and  this  would  have  left  the  Board  of  Education  in  the  position 
of  having  utilized  every  possible  source  of  income  for  general 
school  purposes. 

However,  the  increase  which  came  as  a  result  of  the  rcas- 
cssment  of  property  values  in  1915  is  an  indication  of  two  facts: 
First,  the  valuation  during  the  years  1911-1914  was  probably  too 
low,  and  hence  the  proximity  of  the  total  mill  tax  for  general 
school  purposes  to  the  legal  limit  (5.46,  5.30,  5.30)  had  not  in  it 
the  elements  of  danger  that  we  would  have  at  first  inferred.  It 
is  probably  true  that  had  an  adequate  estimate  been  made  in  1912, 
that  at  least  $125,000,000  would  have  been  found  which,  with  a 
budget  of  $509,000,  would  have  resulted  in  a  mill  tax  of  slightly 
over  four  mills. 

Second.  Probably  not  for  many  years  will  there  be  such 
an  increment  in  the  assessed  valuation  as  was  made  last  year. 
If  we  project  the  past  experience  of  the  city  into  the  future,  the 
next  few  years  will  sec  relatively  small  additions  to  the  valuation. 
With  a  budget  for  general  school  purposes  increasing  at  the  rate 
at  which  it  has  increased  in  the  past  ten  years,  will  the  Board 
again  soon  face  the  question :  "How  raise  money  for  general 
school  purposes?" 

Let  us  take  a  concrete  case.  Assume  that  the  assessed  val- 
uation of  the  city  will  increase  annually  $8,000,000.  Assume  that 
the  Board's  annual  increase  in  expenditure  will  be  $55,000  (the 
average  annual  increase  for  the  past  ten  years.)  What  will  be 
the  mill  tax  situation  five,  ten  and  fifteen  years  hence?  We  set 
down  the  facts  below : 

YEAR               Assessed  Valuation  General  Tax  No.  of  Mills  Levied 

1920                                    $203,000,000  $1,001,000                                  4.98 

1925     "                                 243,000,000  1,276,000                                  5.26 

1930    ™".! 283,000,000  1,551,000                                  5.48 

If  property  valuations  and  school  expenditures  should 
continue  to  develop  in  the  next  fifteen  years  as  they  have  in  the 
past  fifteen  years,  it  is  doubtless  true  that  the  Board  would  face 
no  serious  difficulty  in  financing  the  public  schools.  At  the  same 


370  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

time,  it  would  be  working  so  near  the  legal  limit  of  revenue  that 
an  unusual  demand  upon  the  financial  resources  of  the  Board 
in  any  one  year  would  be  hard  to  meet.  There  is,  of  course,  no 
assurance  that  the  capacity  of  the  city,  as  shown  by  assessed 
valuation,  will  develop  at  the  rate  at  which  it  has  developed  in 
the  past.  If  it  should  not,  the  Board  within  a  few  years,  will  have 
to  face  a  situation  demanding  some  retrenchment.  The  fact 
that  in  the  past  three  years  the  mill  tax  has  been  close  to  the  legal 
limit  is  suggestive  of  the  need  for  a  constructive  plan  for  handling 
this  matter  in  the  future. 

The  other  outstanding  fact,  concerning  the  utilization  of  the 
city's  financial  resources,  is  that  in  spite  of  a  heavy  outlay  for 
permanent  improvements,  the  city  has  never  taken  advantage  of 
its  burgetary  possibilities  in  the  matter  of  school  plant.  This 
question  will  be  discussed  in  full  in  the  section  dealing  with  die 
bonding  policy  of  the  Board  of  Education. 

4.  To  provide  for  emergencies,  the  Board  is  given  power  to 
borrow  money  temporarily  in  a  total  sum  not  to  exceed  $30,000 
in  any  one  year,  this  loan  to  be  paid  out  of  the  first  school  money 
collected  thereafter.     During  recent  years,  the  Board  has  had  to 
take  advantage  of  this  power  but  once,  in   1914-1915,  when  a 
mistake  in  estimating  the  amount  of  money  to  be  received  from 
the  state  primary  fund  caused  a  deficit  in  current  funds.     For 
purposes  of  permanent  improvements,  the   Board  may  borrow 
such  money  as  it  deems  necessary  (subject  to  approval  by  the 
Common  Council)   and  on  such  terms  as  it  deems  wise.     The 
only  restrictions  placed  on  the  bonding  powers  of  the  school 
district  are  that  no  bonds  shall  be  sold  for  less  than  par,  bear 
more  than  five  per  cent  interest,  or  run  more  than  twenty  years. 
The   question   of  bonding  and  bonding  policies,  borrowing  on 
short  term  notes,  etc.,  will  be  discussed  fully  in  a  later  section  of 
this  report. 

5.  Important  to  the  later  discussion  of  the  general  organiza- 
tion of  the  school  system,  and  of  the  relation  of  the  business  and 
educational  departments,  is  the  provision  that  the  Board  may 
apportion   to  its   administrative   officers,   the   superintendent  of 
schools  and  the  business  manager,  such  duties  as  it  sees  fit.    Thus 
it  is  clear  that  aside  from  questions  of  taxation,  bonding,  and  gen- 
eral finance,  the  Board  of  Education  is  unhampered  in  determin- 
ing the  methods  of  organization  and  administration  of  the  pub- 
lic schools  of  the  city. 

Section  B.     The  Sources  and  Amounts  of  Revenue  of  the 

Board  of  Education 

Table  LXIV  summarizes  the  sources  and  amounts  of  reven- 
ue of  the  Board  of  Education  for  the  ten  years  1906-1915  inclus- 


COST  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION  371 

ive.  During  that  time  the  total  net  receipts  of  the  Board  have 
nearly  tripled,  and  the  funds  raised  by  local  taxation  have 
doubled.  With  the  exception  of  1912,  during  the  years  1909  to 
date  the  Board  has  obtained  about  20  per  cent  of  its  income  from 
its  apportionment  of  the  state  primary  fund.  It  may  be  noted 
that  this  is  a  larger  proportion  of  city  school  revenues  coming 
from  a  state  school  fund  than  will  be  found  in  most  states.  It  is 
common  to  find  90  per  cent  or  more  of  the  school  revenues  raised 
by  local  taxation.  The  amount  of  the  apportionment  is  deter- 
mined by  the  number  of  children  of  school  census  age  (5  to  19 
years  inclusive).  For  some  time  past  it  has  been  felt  that  the 
annual  school  census  was  not  resulting  in  an  accurate  statement 
of  the  number  of  persons  of  school  census  age.  The  recently 
organized  Bureau  of  Census  has  estimated  that  Grand  Rapids 
should  have  a  considerably  larger  number  of  persons  reported  at 
the  ages  5  to  19  inclusive  than  has  been  reported.  If  this  esti- 
mate is  correct,  it  would  mean  that  the  Board  would  receive 
from  the  state  primary  fund  each  year  several  thousand  dollars 
more  than  is  indicated  in  the  table.  Within  the  past  year,  a  con- 
tinuing census  has  been  established  in  the  office  of  the  business 
manager,  and  plans  have  been  perfected  for  obtaining  a  correct 
count  of  the  persons  of  school  age. 

Furthermore,  the  business  department  is  somewhat  hamp- 
ered in  its  planning  of  the  annual  budget  by  uncertainty  as  to 
the  size  of  the  state  primary  apportionment.  With  the  exception 
of  1912,  the  size  of  the  fund  has  been  fairly  constant,  running 
about  $220,000.  In  that  year,  the  date  of  apportionment  of  the 
state  fund  was  changed  from  May  to  July,  with  a  consequent  loss 
to  the  Board  of  some  $200,000  of  primary  money.  This  deficit 
was  made  up  by  a  legislative  permission  to  borrow  $225,000  of 
the  city,  the  same  to  be  paid  in  three  annual  installments  of 
$75,000  each. 

The  Relation  of  Revenue  Receipts  to  Current  Expenditure 
of  the  Board  of  Education.  During  the  last  ten  years  the  Board 
of  Education  has  increased  both  its  expenditures  and  its  revenues 
very  rapidly.  Has  the  one  increased  more  rapidly  than  the 
other?  Table  LXV  presents  the  relation  between  revenue  re- 
ceipts and  the  annual  expenditures  during  the  past  ten  years. 
These  data  have  been  taken  from  the  Annual  Reports  of  the 
United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1906  to  1915  in- 
clusive, as  compiled  and  reported  by  the  business  manager  of  the 
Grand  Rapids  Board  of  Education.  An  examination  has  been 
made  of  the  records  from  which  the  data  for  1915  were  reported 
to  the  Commissioner,  and  it  is  evident  that  the  data,  although 


372 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


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Total 
Expenditures 
438,661 
435,570 
504,822 

Revenue  Receipts 
482,645 
561,871 
561,371 

Excess  of 
Expenditures 
Over  Receipts 

Excess  of 
Receipts  Over 
Expenditures 
43,984 
126,301 
56,549 

536,010 
537,660 
552,250 
637,210 
665,227 

621,805 
612,274 
728,149 
466,855 
841  032 

17di355 

85,795 
74,614 
175,899 

175"i80S 

725,521 
764,398 

884,882 
966,222 

159,361 
201,824 

COST  OF  rUBLIC  EDUCATION  373 

not  classified  in  the  Board's  accounts  on  the  same  basis  as  that 
used  by  the  Bureau  of  Education,  have  been  reclassified  and 
reported  with  care.  Since  the  data  are  organized  in  the  required 

TABLE  LXV 
Relation  of  Expenditures  to  Revenue  Receipts  1906-1915*. 


YEAR 

1906  ... 

1907  . 

1908  

1909  .. 

1910  ,. 

1911  

1912  ... 

1913  

1914  ... 

1915  

*  Data    as   reported    by    Business    Manager    of    Board    of   Education   to   U.    S.    Com- 
missioner of   Education,   Annual   Reports    1906-1915,   Vol.    II. 

form,  it  is  more  convenient  to  take  them  from  the  Commissioner's 
Reports. 

The  table  shows  that  the  expenditures  of  the  Board  of  Edu- 
cation have  exceeded  the  revenue  receipts  but  once  in  the  past 
ten  years.  In  1912  there  was  a  serious  deficit  in  the  teachers' 
salary  fund,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  May  apportionment  of  the 
state  primary  fund  was  not  made.  As  we  have  noted  above, 
the  deficit  in  this  year  cannot  be  said  to  be  due  to  any  un- 
favorable condition  of  the  finances,  of  the  Board  of  Education. 
Judged  by  the  condition  of  many  American  cities,  the  relation 
between  current  expenditures  and  revenue  receipts  of  the  Board 
of  Education  in  Grand  Rapids  is  very  satisfactory. 

Section  C.    The  Capacity  of  the  City  to  Support  Schools 

Table  LXIII  indicates  that  the  city  of  Grand  Rapids  is 
liberal  in  the  measure  to  which  it  taxes  itself  for  the  support 
of  schools.  It  is  raising  large  amounts  of  money  for  educational 
purposes  and  it  is  still  far.  from  taking  advantage  of  its  legal 
privileges  in  school  taxation.  The  question  is  fair,  however :  Is 
it  raising  as  much  money  as  it  should  for  school  purposes  when 
measured  in  terms  of  its  financial  capacity  to  do  so? 

We  have  no  definite  ideal  standard  by  which  we  can  answer 
the  question :  "How  much  money  should  a  city  raise  for  school 
purposes?"  We  can,  however,  state  the  degree  to  which  a  city 
conforms  to  or  betters  the  common  practice  of  the  day.  We  can 
legitimately  compare  the  procedure  of  a  city  in  any  aspect  of  the 
administration  of  its  schools  with  other  cities  having  approxi- 
mately the  same  financial  status. 

The  Bases  upon  which  the  Cities  have  been  Compared.    No 


374  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

entirely  satisfactory  basis  has  as  yet  been  worked  out  for  the 
grouping  of  cities  for  comparative  purposes.  It  has  been  agreed 
that  comparison  should  be  made  only  of  cities  of  roughly  the 
same  size.  It  is  a  well-recognized  fact,  however,  that  cities  of 
the  same  size  vary  widely  in  their  wealth,  distribution  of  their 
population  by  nationality  and  by  occupations,  prevalent  wage 
scales,  rapidity  in  growth  of  the  number  of  children  of  school 
census  age,  proportion  of  the  school  population  in  parochial 
schools,  etc. 

An  ideal  list  with  which  to  compare  the  financial  situation 
in  Grand  Rapids  could  best  be  made  up  by  taking  account  of 
all  of  the  above  factors.  To  do  so,  however,  would  reduce  .the 
size  of  the  group  to  such  an  extent  that  it  would  be  of  little  value 
for  practical  comparative  purposes.  In  selecting  the  cities  used 
in  this  report,  three  criteria  were  followed:  1,  the  cities  must 
be  roughly  of  the  same  size ;  2,  they  must  have  approximately  the 
same  wealth  per  person  in  the  population ;  3,  they  must  have 
roughly  the  same  wealth  per  school  census  child.  It  is  thus  be- 
lieved that  the  most  adequate  single  basis  for  comparing  school 
.finance  in  cities  is  the  per  capita  amount  of  money  available  for 
school  purposes.  In  computing  the  amount  of  money  raised  per 
school  census  child,  since  the  legal  school  census  age  is  5  to  19 
years  inclusive  in  Grand  Rapids,  the  number  of  children  between 
these  ages  has  been  computed  for  each  of  19  cities  from  the  most 
recent  census  returns  (1913).)  It  was  found  that  the  applica- 
tion of  any  other  factors  of  comparison  would  reduce  the  size 
of  the  group  to  a  number  where  position  in  the  group  would 
have  little  practical  significance.  The  adoption  of  the  above 
criteria  of  per  capita  wealth  per  person  and  per  school  census 
child  resulted  in  the  elimination  of  such  cities  as  Hartford,  Con- 
necticut, and  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah, — cities  of  roughly  the  same 
size  as  Grand  Rapids,  but  of  70  per  cent  greater  capacity  for 
supporting  schools.  The  original  list  consisted  of  the  26  cities 
that  in  1910  had  populations  ranging  from  80,000  to  125,000.  Of 
these  cities,  Dallas,  Texas,  reported  no  data  to  the  United  States 
Commissioner  of  Education  in  1915.  Spokane,  Washington,  and 
Omaha,  Nebraska,  were  eliminated  because  their  per  capita 
wealth  so  greatly  exceeded  that  of  Grand  Rapids  ($1,700  and 
$2,000  per  inhabitant  as  contrasted  with  $1,000  for  Grand  Rap- 
ids). Yonkers,  New  York,  and  Youngstown,  Ohio,  two  cities 
that  in  1915  were  estimated  at  96,610  and  104,489  are  not  included 
in  the  final  list  because  only  those  cities  were  taken  that  had 
populations  of  between  80,000  and  125,000  in  1910.  These  two 
cities  have  grown  so  rapidly  in  the  past  five  years  that  they  are 
now  more  clearly  in  the  same  population  class  with  Grand 


COST  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION  375 

Rapids.  Since  the  financial  records  for  1915  had  to  be  secured 
through  correspondence  with  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Edu- 
cation, the  records  for  these  two  cities  were  not  included  in  the 
original  tabulations  made.  The  final  list  as  used  in  this  report  in- 
cludes one  city  as  large  as  174,108  (Birmingham,  Alabama,  per 
capita  wealth  almost  identical  with  that  of  Grand  Rapids)  and 
one  city  96,854,  Kansas  City,  Kansas.  Practically  all  the  re- 
maining cities  cluster  very  closely  around  Grand  Rapids  in 
population  (125,759)  and  in  per  capita  wealth  ($1,029.99).  Thus, 
school  finance  in  Grand  Rapids  will  be  discussed  in  this  report 
through  a  comparison  of  its  status  with  that  of  each  of  the  other 
eighteen  cities  used  in  the  following  tables. 

1.     Degree  to  Which  Grand  Rapids  is  Supporting  Schools 

Table  LXVI  and  Diagram  LXXX  compare  the  total  ex- 
penditures of  Grand  Rapids  for  all  school  purposes,  the  expendi- 
tures per  inhabitant  with  those  of  18  other  cities.  A  table 
which  has  been  computed  giving  the  estimated  real  property 
valuation  per  inhabitant  shows  that  Grand  Rapids  is  practically 
the  average  city  of  its  group  in  its  capacity  to  support  schools, 
i.  e.,  it  ranks  ninth  in  a  list  of  nineteen  cities.  This  point  should 
be  emphasized  in  connection  with  the  later  discussion  of  com- 
parative expenditures.  Grand  Rapids  is  considerably  above  the 
average  in  its  per  capita  current  expenditures,  ranking  third  in 
expenditure  per  inhabitant. 

Table  LXVII  and  Diagram  LXXXI  show  that  Grand  Rap- 

TABLE  LXVI 
Expenditures  for  all  School  Purposes  per  Inhabitant  1913*. 

Expenditures  for  Schools 

Per  Inhabitant 
CITY  Total  Amount  Rank 

Albany     $426,362  $4.17 

Birmingham     421,230  2.66 

Bridgeport    369,283  3.29  17 

Cambridge    560,508  5.14  4 

Dayton  506,452  4.15  11 

Des   Moines   684,150  7.26  1 

Fall    River    ..  515,325  4.16  10 


GRAND  RAPIDS  

Kansas    City    

Lowell   

Lynn    

Memphis   

Nashville  .... 
New  Bedford 

Paterson    

Richmond  .... 
San  Antonio 
Scranton 


628,924  5.21 

386,522  4.22  8 

437,987  3.98  13 

386,355  4.02  12 

475,922  3.39  15 

387,357  3.40  14 

475,445  4.41  6 

578,864  4.38  7 

385,181  2.89  18 

366,618  3.31  16 

_ 621,733  4.49 

Springfield,  Mass 689,998  7.07 

*  Data  from   U.   S.    Bureau  of   Census,   Bulletin   No.    126,   p.   22. 


376 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


ids  is  spending  more  money  on  schools  in  proportion  to  its  capa- 
city for  doing  so  than  the  average  city  in  the  group.  It  is  in  the 
upper  third,  ranking  sixth  in  19  cities  in  expenditure  per  $1,000 
of  real  wealth,  although  it  ranks  ninth  in  estimated  real  wealth 
per  inhabitant.  Furthermore,  in  proportion  to  its  capacity,  it  is 
spending  more  than  twice  as  much  as  the  cities  ranking  17th,  18th 
and  19th  in  the  list,  and  practically  the  same  amount  as  the 


DIAGRAM    LXXX — Expenditures   per   inhabitant   for    19   cities. 


COST  OF  TUBLIC  EDUCATION 


377 


cities  ranking-  3rd,  4th  and  5th.     The  city  is  a  leader  in  the  de- 
gree to  which  it  is  taxing'  its  capacity  to  support  schools. 


TABLE  LXVII 


Expenditures    for    School 
Rank  of  19  Cities.     1913*. 


Purposes    per   $1,000.00   of   Real    Wealth; 


CITY 

DCS  Moines  

Scranton    

Paterson     . 

Fall    River    

Lowell    

GRAND    RAPIDS 

Cambridge 

Lynn     , 

New   Bedford   

Springfield     

Kansas    City   

Nashville   

Albany 

Bridgeport     

Dayton      

San    Antonio    

Memphis    

Birmingham    

Richmond    . 


Population 

94,238 
138,621 
132,236 
123,982 
109,885 
120,695 
109,045 
96,099 
107,766 
97,654 
91,687 
113,822 
102,344 
112,144 
122,079 
110,679 
140,351 
158,200 
133,185 


Estimated 

Real 

Valuation 
of  Property! 

87,887,532 
101,944,538 
101,993,413 

97,935,957 

84,792,243 
124,313,651 
115,947,300 

81,529,354 
101,744,559 
151,960,100 

90,367,010 
102,881,745 
115,325,264 
105,965,619 
150,005,610 
115,415,044 
184,198,795 
170,239,276 
198,358,386 


Expenditures 

Total  Expenditures 
for  Schools 

per  $1000 
of  Real  Wealth 
Amount          Rank 

684,150 

7.78 

1 

621,733 

6.10 

2 

578,864 

5.68 

3 

515,325 

5.26 

4 

437,987 

5.17 

5 

628,924 

5.06 

6 

560,508 

4.84 

7 

386,355 

4.74 

8 

475,445 

4.67 

9 

689,998 

4.54 

10 

386,522 

4.28 

11 

387,357 

3.77 

12 

426,362 

3.71 

13 

369,283 

3.49 

14 

506,452 

3.37 

15 

366,618 

3.19 

16 

475,922 

2.59 

17 

421,230 

2.48 

18 

385,181 

1.94 

19 

*  Data  from  U.  S.   Bureau  of  Census,  Bulletin  No.   126,  p.   22. 

t   Computed  from  the  stated   assessed  valuation   and  rate  of   assessment. 


2.     How  Grand  Rapids  Spends  Its  Money 

The  Extent  to  which  it  Supports  Schools  as  Compared  with  the 
Way  in  which  it  Supports  other  City  Departments 

There  are  two  ways  in  which  may  be  determined  the  extent 
to  which  the  city's  money  is  going  into  the  schools,  1,  by  a  com- 
parison of  the  absolute  expenditure  per  person  for  each  of  the 
city  departments ;  2,  by  a  comparison  of  the  per  cent  of  the  total 
governmental  cost  payments  that  goes  to  each  department. 
Neither  basis  for  judgment  is  sufficient  if  taken  alone;  the  two 
taken  together  provide  a  method  of  determining  the  status  of 
the  question.  Table  LXVIII  and  Diagram  LXXXII  present  the 
absolute  expenditures  per  inhabitant,  and  Table  LXIX  and  Dia- 
gram LXXXIII  the  percentile  expenditures.  The  last  column 
of  Table  LXVIII  indicates  that  Grand  Rapids  spends  slightly  less 
per  inhabitant  than  the  average  city  in  the  group,  (although  the 
absolute  difference  is  slight)  for  the  operation  of  all  city  depart- 
ments. But  of  the  total  governmental  cost  payments,  it  devotes 
a  larger  percentage  of  its  municipal  income  to  schools  than  all 
but  three  of  the  19  cities.  It  ranks  third  in  the  19  in  the  abso- 
lute amount  spent  for  schools.  The  city  is  devoting  relatively 


378  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


DIAGRAM    LXXXI — Expenditures   for  all   school   purposes   per   $1000   of   real   wealth — 

19   cities. 

little  of  its  income  to  police,  highways,  sanitation  and  charities, 
but  a  comparatively  large  proportion  to  schools.  Nearly  one- 
half  of  its  municipal  income  goes  to  the  support  of  the  public 
schools.  Table  LXX  indicates  the  position  of  the  city  in  the  list 
of  19  cities,  in  the  per  cent  of  total  governmental  cost  payments 
devoted  to  the  various  city  departments.  Thus,  the  city  is  not 
only  liberal  in  its  total  expenditures  per  inhabitant,  and  its 


COST  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION 


379 


TABLE  LXVIII 

Expenditures    per    Inhabitant    for    Various    City    Departments. 
19   Cities   19l3.* 


Total 
Expense 

Gen'l 

Sani- 

High- 

Char- 

for all  Gen 

CITIES 

Gov't. 

Police 

Fire 

Health 

tation 

ways 

ities 

Schools 

eral  Depts. 

Albany 

1.84 

1.99 

2.10 

0.20 

1.13 

1.38 

0.45 

4.17 

14.93 

Birmingham 

0.62 

1.01 

1.37 

0.13 

0.85 

0.96 

0.22 

2.66 

8.20 

Bridgeport 

1.23 

1.36 

1.90 

0.14 

0.99 

1.76 

0.92 

3.29 

12.46 

Cambridge 

1.13 

1.72 

1.33 

0.52 

1.93 

3.08 

0.65 

5.14 

17.31 

Dayton 

0.94 

1.25 

1.23 

0.19 

1.31 

2.29 

0.51 

4.15 

12.44 

Des    Moines 

0.95 

0.95 

2.34 

0.12 

0.72 

1.51 

0.05 

7.26 

15.60 

Fall    River 

0.67 

1.42 

1.40 

0.41 

0.90 

1.94 

0.98 

4.16 

12.59 

Grand  Rapids 

1.15 

1.15 

1.73 

0.37 

0.84 

0.80 

0.23 

5.21 

12.32 

Kansas  City 

0.84 

0.90 

1.42 

0.09 

0.46 

0.76 

0.09 

4.22 

9.45 

Lowell 

1.03 

1.35 

1.59 

0.23 

1.06 

1.90 

0.84 

3.99 

12.96 

Lynn 

1.09 

1.17 

1.43 

0.41 

1.09 

1.87 

0.66 

4.02 

13.35 

Memphis 

0.72 

1.57 

1.49 

0.35 

1.18 

2.00 

0.55 

3.39 

12.68 

Nashville 

0.66 

1.23 

1.27 

0.24 

1.04 

1.65 

0.44 

3.40 

10.82 

New  Bedford 

1.24 

1.69 

1.26 

0.52 

1.60 

2.34 

0.68 

4.41 

15.32 

Paterson 

0.65 

1.44 

1.66 

0.17 

0.77 

0.97 

0.52 

4.38 

11.35 

Richmond 

1.34 

1.49 

1.45 

0.40 

1.75 

2.97 

0.64 

2.89 

13.77 

San  Antonio 

0.60 

1.22 

1.31 

0.17 

1.06 

1.70 

0.22 

3.31 

10.03 

Scranton 

0.86 

0.88 

0.94 

0.07 

1.01 

1.02 

4.49 

9.75 

Springfield 

0.88 

1.71 

2.63 

0.42 

1.44 

3.39 

0.53 

7.07 

19.94 

*  U.  S.  Bureau 

of  Census, 

1913, 

Bulletin 

No.   126 

,  Table 

2,  Page 

44. 

TABLE  LXIX 

Per  Cent  of  Total  Governmental  Cost  Payments  Devoted  to  Various 
City  Departments   1913*. 


Hieh- 

CITIES         Gen' 

1  Gov' 

t     Police 

Fire        Health 

Sanitation 

ways 

Charities 

Schools 

Albany                   1 

2.3 

13.3 

14.1 

1.4 

7.6 

9.3 

3.0 

27.9 

Birmingham 

7.6 

12.3 

16.7 

1.6 

10.4 

11.8 

2.6 

32.5 

Bridgeport 

9.9 

10.9 

15.2 

1.1 

7.9 

14.1 

7.4 

26.4 

Cambridge 

6.5 

9.9 

7.7 

3.0 

11.1 

17.8 

3.7 

29.7 

Dayton 

7.6 

10.1 

9.9 

1.5 

10.5 

18.4 

4.1 

33.4 

Des    Moines 

6.1 

6.1 

15.0 

0.8 

4.6 

9.7 

0.3 

46.5 

Fall   River 

5.3 

11.3 

11.1 

3.3 

7.2 

15.4 

7.8 

33.0 

Grand   Rapids 

9.4 

9.4 

14.0 

3.0 

6.8 

6.5 

1.9 

42.3 

Kansas    City 

8.9 

9.5 

15.0 

1.0 

4.9 

8.0 

1.0 

44.6 

Lowell 

7.9 

10.4 

12.2 

1.8 

8.2 

14.6 

6.5 

30.7 

Lynn 

82 

8.8 

10.7 

3.1 

8.2 

14.0 

4.9 

30.1 

Memphis 

5.7 

12.4 

11.7 

2.8 

9.3 

15.8 

4.3 

26.7 

Nashville 

6.1 

11.3 

11.7 

2.2 

9.6 

15.2 

4.0 

31.5 

New  Bedford 

8.1 

11.0 

8  2 

3  4 

10.4 

15.3 

4.4 

28.8 

Paterson 

5.8 

12.7 

14.6 

1.5 

6.8 

8.5 

4.6 

38.6 

Richmond 

9.7 

10.8 

10.6 

29 

12.7 

21.6 

4.7 

21.0 

San  Antonio 

5.9 

12  2 

13.0 

1.7 

10.6 

17.0 

2.2 

33.0 

Scranton 

8.8 

9.0 

9.6 

0.7 

10.4 

10.4 

46.0 

Springfield 

4.4 

8.6 

13.2 

2.1 

7.2 

17.0 

2.7 

35.4 

*  U.  S.   Bureau  of 

Census  1913 

,  Bulletin 

No. 

126,  Table  2 

380 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


COST  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION 


381 


DIAGRAM    LXXXII — Per   cent   of   total   cost   payments   to   schools — 19   cities. 


382  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

TABLE  LXX 

Rank  in  Per  Cent  of  Total  Governmental  Cost  Payments  Devoted  to 

Various    City   Departments    1913. 

High- 


CITIES         Gen'l  Gov't 
Albany                         1 
Birmingham         10  or   11 
Bridgeport 

Police 
1 
4 
9 

Fire 
6 
1 

2 

Health 
15 
12 
16 

Sanitation 
13 
6 
12 

ways       Charities 
16                12 
13                 14 
11                   2 

Schools 
16 
10 
18 

Cambridge 

12 

13 

19 

4  or  5 

2 

3 

11 

14 

T^av'o^                 in 

or   11 

12 

16 

13  or   14 

4 

2 

9 

7 

Des  Moines       13 

or  14 

19 

3   or  4 

18 

19 

15 

18 

1 

v-11    u;-  ~- 

18 

6  or  7 

13 

2 

14  or  15 

7 

1 

8  or  9 

Grand   Rapids 

4 

15 

7 

4  or  5 

16  or  17 

19 

16 

4 

Kansas   Cuy 

5 

14 

3  or  4 

17 

18 

18 

17 

3 

Lowell 

9 

11 

10 

10 

10  or  11 

10 

3 

12 

Lynn 

Memphis 

7 
17 

17 
3 

14 
11   or  12 

3 

7 

10  or   11 
9 

12 
6 

4 
8 

13 
17 

Nashville            13 

or   14 

6  or  7 

11  or  12 

8 

8 

9 

10 

11 

New    Bedford 

8 

8 

18 

1 

6 

8 

7 

15 

Paterson 

16 

2 

5 

13  or  14 

16  or   17 

17 

6 

5 

Richmond 

3 

10 

15 

6 

1 

1 

5 

19 

San    Antonio 

15 

5 

9 

11 

3 

4  or  5 

15 

.  8  or  9 

Scranton 

6 

16 

17 

19 

6 

14 

19 

2 

Springfield 

19 

18 

8 

9 

14  or  15 

4  or  5 

13 

6 

expenditures  expressed  in  terms  of  its  capacity  to  support  schools, 
but  it  is  devoting  a  proportionally  large  part  of  its  municipal 
expenditures  to  the  public  schools. 

3.    How  the  Board  of  Education  Spends  its  Money 

(a)  The  Distribution  of  School  Moneys  Between  Current 
Expense  and  Permanent  Improvements.  The  principal  division 
of  school  expenditures  is  that  between  current  expense  and  out- 
lay for  permanent  improvements.  Table  LXXI  and  Diagram 
LXXXIV  show  the  growth  and  distribution  of  the  Board's  ex- 
penditures. In  fourteen  years  the  Board's  total  expenditures 
have  increased  nearly  300  per  cent.  In  fact,  in  ten  years  they 
have  tripled.  From  1902-1905  it  spent  annually  approximately 
$400,000.  In  1914-1915  it  spent  over  $1,000,000  and  $1,400,000 
respectively.  During  the  same  time,  the  average  number  of 
pupils  belonging  to  the  school  system  increased  only  1990  or  14.2 
per  cent.  An  analysis  of  the  total  expenditures  reveals  where 
the  largest  portions  of  the  expenditures  went,  namely  into  per- 
manent improvements.  The  analysis  to  be  made  later  will  show 
that  for  years  previous  to  1905  and  1906,  relatively  little  was 
done  in  adding  to  the  permanent  plant  of  the  Grand  Rapids 
school  ^system.  From  1893  to  1905  only  three  new  grammar 
school  buildings  were  built  (at  a  cost  of  $130,000)  and  no  high 
schools.  In  the  same  time  four  four-room  additions  were  made 
to  elementary  schools.  It  was  a  period  of  relatively  little  atten- 
tion to  the  development  of  the  school  plant. 

With  the  reorganization  of  the  Board  of  Education  in  1905 
(a  Board  of  nine  members  elected  at  large,  replacing  a  political 
Board  of  twenty-four  "ward"  members)  there  came  a  change  in 


COST  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION 


TABLE  LXXI 


383 


Amount  spent  for  all  Current  Expenditures  and  for  Permanent  Im- 
provements  during  years    1902-1915   inclusive.* 


YEAR 

1902      
1903 

Total 
Current  Expenses 

$349,885.09 
393  984  85 

Total  Spent 
for  Permanent 
Improvements 

$35,801.68 
35  347  18 

Total  Ex- 
penditure for  All 
School  Purposes 

$  385,686.77 
429  332  03 

Average  No. 
Pupils   Belong- 
ing to  Schools 

13,321 
13  126 

1904      . 
1905      . 

416,289.46 
409,785  89 

17,236.83 
24,700.00 

433',526.29 
434,485  89 

12,992 
12  902 

1906 

458  055  73 

89  222  86 

547  278  59 

13  047 

1907      . 

435,570.26 

88,603.60 

524,173.86 

13,139 

1908     
1909 

514,784.37 
550  128  16 

119,804.43 
250  210  53 

634,588.80 
800  338  69 

13,374 
13  493 

1910     . 

561,457.05 

404,466.14 

965,923.19 

13,580 

1911     

1912 

575,478.78 
662  940  28 

245,751.97 
157  159  14 

821,230.75 
820  099  42 

13,771 
14  112 

1913     .. 

769,440.11 

89,880.59 

859,320.70 

14,730 

1914    
1915    .. 

791,239.91 
884.008.22 

249,594.73 
545.771.48 

1,040,834.64 
1.429.779.70 

14,865 
15.311 

*  Data  from  Annual  Reports  of  the  Board  of  Education. 

the  manner  of  handling  school  business.  A  new  educational  and 
business  organization  was  installed,  and  a  systematic  study  un- 
dertaken of  the  needs  of  the  school  plant.  During  1907  and  1908 
several  necessary  four-room  additions  were  made  to  grammar 
schools,  and  a  plan  for  high-school  development  worked  out.  It 
was  quite  clear  that  a  complete  overhauling  of  the  physical 
equipment  of  the  plant  was  necessary.  This  resulted  in  an  ex- 
penditure of  over  $400,000  for  new  buildings,  $302,000  of  this 
being  for  the  Central  and  Union  High  Schools,  the  remainder 
for  new  elementary  schools.  Careful  reading  of  the  reports  of 
committees,  of  the  business  manager  and  of  the  proceedings  of 
the  Board,  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  the  Board  of  Education, 
through  its  business  department,  has  administered  the  develop- 
ment of  the  school  plant  in  a  far-sighted  manner.  Careful  stud- 
ies made  of  particular  buildings  and  of  the  life  of  school  build- 
ings in  the  city  of  Grand  Rapids  in  general,  culminated  in  a 
definite  building  policy  of  the  Board  in  1912  and  1913.  In  that 
year  a  scheme  of  five-year  development  of  the  school  plant  was 
planned,  and  $1,011,000  in  bonds  were  voted  by  the  Board  of 
Education.  This  policy  of  replacement  and  extension  was  hamp- 
ered by  an  adverse  vote  of  the  people  on  referendum  in  1913. 
Notwithstanding  this,  the  Common  Council  approved  bonds  to 
the  amount  of  $557,000  in  1913,  from  which  the  South  High 
School  and  new  elementary  schools  were  built  in  the  past  two 
years.  The  delay  in  approval  of  the  bond  issue,  however,  ac- 
counts for  the  low  point  in  the  building  curve  in  the  above 
diagram.  The  upward  trend  of  the  permanent  improvements 
curve  in  1914  and  1915  is  explained  by  the  completion  of  the 
high  schools  and  of  several  new  elementary  schools.  (A  more 


384  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


^-h 


::F: 


J 


'" 


i 


ffl 


ffl 


ffl 


DIAGRAM   LXXXIV- — Amount  spent  for  current  expenses  and  permanent  improvements 

1902-1915. 


COST  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION  385 

detailed  analysis  of  the  bonding  policy  of  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion will  be  discussed  later  in  this  report.) 

Thus,  careful  analysis  of  the  financial  aspects  of  the  building 
situation  in  the  city  shows  that  the  great  increase  in  the  absolute 
and  relative  amount  of  money  spent  for  permanent  improvements 
is  but  a  natural  outcome  of  a  long  period  of  neglect  of  the  school 
plant.  The  city  should  face  squarely  the  problem  of  supporting 
the  Board  of  Education  in  its  present  attempt  to  bring  the  ele- 
mentary schools  of  the  city  up  to  a  high  standard.  The  high- 
school  situation  has  been  very  much  improved  within  the  last 
three  years.  It  seems  clear  that  more  attention  should  now  be 
given  to  the  development  of  the  elementary-school  plant.  (The 
question  of  how  best  to  raise  money  for  building  purposes  and 
the  efficiency  of  the  architectural  and  construction  department 
of  the  business  organization  are  discussed  later  in  the  report.) 

In  the  same  interval  from  1902  to  1915,  the  total  current 
expense  of  the  Board  has  increased  fairly  regularly  from  year 
to  year.  A  comparison  has  been  made  of  the  growth  in  the 
average  number  of  pupils  in  the  fourteen  years  1902  to  1915 
inclusive,  with  the  increase  in  current  annual  expenditure.  Dur- 
ing the  time  that  there  has  been  but  relatively  little  increase 
in  the  number  of  pupils  in  the  public  schools  (as  shown  by  the 
Annual  Reports  of  the  Board  of  Education)  there  has  been  a 
remarkable  increase  in  current  expenditures.  Table  LXXII  and 
Diagram  LXXXV  analyze  the  larger  items  making  up  the  total 
current  expenditures.  Roughly  70  per  cent  of  a  city's  school 
expenditures  go  into  the  salaries  of  teachers.  The  increase  in 
current  expenditures  is  shown  by  Table  LXXII  to  be  found  very 
largely  in  this  item:  the  city  spent  nearly  $300,000  more  in  1915 
for  teachers'  salaries  than  it  did  in  1905.  In  the  same  interval 
the  number  of  teachers  in  the  system  increased  from  422  to  611, 

TABLE  LXXII 

Total  Expenditures  for  Salaries  of  Teachers,  Janitors,  and  Adminis- 
tration, and  Average  Salary  Paid  Per  Teacher.  For  1905  to  1915  in- 
clusive.* 

SALARIES  PAID Average 

No.  of                                                                     Admin-  Salary  Paid 

YEAR                         Teachers          Teachers              Janitors             istration  Per  Teacher 

1905  .                                     422                $285,476               $30,074               $11,914  $676 

1906     425  293,824  29,687  10,390  691 

1907 452  323,185  33,073  11,490  715 

1908  .  483  376,981  32,563  11,874  780 

1909     482  394,822  33,215  12,263  819 

1910     488  402,355  32,768  12,871  824 

1911  .  505  413,263  40,407  13,884  818 

1912     540  450,884  46,031  14,325  835 

1913  .  558  483,961  45,963  15,417  867 

1914  .  593  516,832  46,712  16,523  871 

1915     611  548,795  49,459  18,510  898 

*   Data  from  Annual  Reports  of  Board  of  Education. 


?? 


m 


DIAGRAM   LXXXV — Increase   in   number   of   teachers    and   in   average   salary   paid    to 

teachers,    1905-1915. 


COST  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION  387 

an  increase  of  about  30  per  cent.  This  has  meant  a  constantly 
decreasing  size  of  class.  At  the  same  time,  the  Board  has  con- 
sistently raised  teachers'  salaries.  In  1905  it  spent  for  this  pur- 
pose $676  per  teacher:  in  1915,  $898  per  teacher.  (A  detailed 
discussion  of  salary  schedules  will  be  given  later  in  this  report.) 
While  the  total  amount  spent  for  teachers'  salaries  has  practi- 
cally doubled  in  ten  years,  janitorial  expense  and  administrative 
salaries  have  increased  about  two-thirds.  In  the  meantime, 
building  and  ground  maintenance  has  nearly  doubled,  $23,365  to 
$51,656;  fuel  expense  has  more  than  tripled,  $8,607  to  $25,444; 
the  interest  on  bonds,  $12,451  to  $36,398,  supplies,  $11,530  to 
$33,752  have  each  tripled. 

This  study  of  the  classification  of  total  disbursements  leads 
to  the  conclusion  that  the  city  of  Grand  Rapids,  through  its 
Board  of  Education  and  Common  Council  has  been  very  liberal 
in  its  support  of  schools.  Not  only  has  it  entered  upon  a  definite 
policy  of  developing  the  school  plant,  but  it  is  also  assuming  an 
attitude  of  being  willing  to  pay  more  for  each  aspect  of  educa- 
tional service. 

(b)     The  Relative  Extent  to  which  Grand  Rapids  Supports 
Different  Kinds  of  Educational  Service 

1.  How  does  Grand  Rapids  Distribute  Its  Current  Expenditures? 

Granted  that  the  Board  of  Education  has  entered  upon  a 
policy  of  development  aimed  at  correcting  the  condition  brought 
on  previous  to  the  reorganization  in  1905,  is  it  developing  all 
phases  of  educational  work,  or  is  it  emphasizing  one  at  the  ex- 
pense of  others? 

The  business  manager,  appointed  by  the  Board  in  1906,  in 
designing  a  system  of  fund  accounting,  classified  accounts  as  1, 
educational  (fund  numbers  1-9  inclusive)  ;  2,  business  (funds 
numbers  10  and  above).  The  business  department  at  the  same 
time  was  created  a  co-ordinate  department  of  the  general  sys- 
tem. The  business  manager  reported  to  the  Board  directly,  not 
to  the  Superintendent  of  Schools.  It  is  pertinent  to  the  pur- 
pose of  this  inquiry  to  study  the  expenditures  of  the  Board  when 
classified  in  accordance  with  this  larger  basis  of  division  em- 
ployed since  its  establishment  in  the  busines  manager's  office. 

a.  Educational  vs.  Business  Expenditures  of  the  Board. 
Tables  LXXIII  and  LXXIV  show  the  status  of  the  two  divi- 
sions. Table  LXXIII  shows  the  amounts  spent  for  all  educa- 
tional purposes,  and  for  all  business  purposes  during  the  past 
five  years,  and  the  per  cent  of  the  total  current  expenditures  de- 


388  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

voted  to  each.    The  following  items  are  included  under  the  above 
named  purposes : 

Educational  purposes   (salaries  and  expense). 

1.  Salaries  and  expenses  of  teachers,  principals,  and  their 
clerks;  of  supervisors  and  their  clerks; 

2.  School  supplies,  school  books,  manual  training  supplies 
and  equipment; 

3.  Instructional  expense  for  special  schools; 

4.  Other  miscellaneous  instructional  expense. 

Business  purposes — salaries  and  expense  of  the  business 
department. 

1.  Expenses  of  the  Board  of  Education; 

2.  Maintenance  of  buildings  and  grounds; 

3.  Salaries  and  supplies  for  janitors; 

4.  Fuel,  light,  power  and  water ; 

5.  Miscellaneous  business  expense. 

TABLE  LXXIII 

Distribution  of  Educational  and  Business  Expenditures  of  the  Board 
of  Education,  1911-1915  inclusive.* 

Per  Cent 

of  Total  Devoted  to 

Educational  Business         Total  Current     Educational    Business 

YEAR  Expenditure         Expenditure       Expenditure        Purposes       Purposes 

1911     $452,152.07  $  96,021.77  $548,173.84  82.48  17.52 

1912     498,426.71  136,260.91  634,687.62  78.51  21.49 

1913 532,508.36  130,897.11  663,405.47  80.27  19.72 

1914  .  563,206.65  118,442.37  681,649.02  82.62  17.37 

1915     602,944.20  153,253.26  756,197.46  79.75  20.25 

*  Data  compiled  from  the  Annual  Reports  of  the  Board  of  Education. 

The  table  shows  a  certain'  consistency  in  the  policy  of  the 
Board  in  its  distribution  of  expense  between  these  two  larger 
types  of  activities.  Approximately  four-fifths  of  the  Board's 
money  has  gone  to  educational  purposes,  two-fifths  to  business 
purposes.  Is  this  proportion  rightly  balanced?  Is  the  business 
department  receiving  more  or  less  than  it  should?  Has  the  Board 
of  Education,  in  establishing  a  policy  of  physical  development, 
and  iri  reorganizing  the  business  end  of  school  administration, 
emphasized  unduly  the  activities  of  the  business  department  at 
the  expense  of  the  educational  department? 

The  best  method  available  for  answering  these  questions  is 
to  compare  what  the  city  is  doing  with  the  record  of  other  cities 
in  its  class.  Table  LXXIV  does  this  by  giving  the  absolute 
amount  spent  per  pupil  in  average  daily  attendance  for  these 
two  purposes,  together  with  the  per  cent  of  the  total  devoted  to 
each.  It  should  be  noted  that  a  city's  expenditures  for  any 
school  purpose  should  be  analyzed  in  this  two-fold  way,  1.  by 
determining  its  absolute  per  capita  expenditures ;  2.  by  comput- 


COST  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION 


389 


ing  the  per  cent  of  its  expenditures  devoted  to  the  particular 
phase  of  school  administration  in  question.  Both  methods  must 
be  used  to  give  an  adequate  comprehension  of  the  situation. 
Table  LXXIV  shows  that  Grand  Rapids  is  spending  more  money 

TABLE  LXXIV 
Total  and  Per   Capita   Expenditures   for   Educational  and   Business 


Purposes. 

Total  Expenditure  for  : 

Expenditure  Per 
Pupil  in  Average 
Daily  Attendance  for: 
Educa- 

Rank in  Ex- 
penditure Per  Pupil 
Average  Daily 
Attendance  for  : 
Educa- 

Educational 

Business 

tional 

Business 

tional 

Business 

CITY 

Purposes 

Purposes 

Purposes 

Purposes 

Purposes 

Purposes 

Albany 

387,781 

92.120 

35.85 

8.51 

5 

6 

Birmingham 

453,073 

71,721 

23.01 

3.64 

19 

19 

Bridgeport 

400,184 

90,950 

24.95 

5.67 

16 

14 

Cambridge 

539,066 

93,559 

37.11 

6.44 

4 

13 

Dayton 

466,131 

130,140 

29.86 

8.34 

11 

7 

Des    Moines 

624,827 

144,396 

40.20 

9.29 

3 

4 

Fall   River 

497,634 

122,344 

35.05 

8.61 

6 

5 

GRAND  RAPIDS 

>  598,771 

153,986 

40.65 

10.45 

2 

3 

Kansas    City 

382,624 

132,103 

30.57 

10.55 

9 

2 

Lowell 

322,425 

87,131 

29.14 

7.60 

12 

9 

Lynn 

340,413   . 

85,115 

27.61 

6.91 

13 

11 

Memphis 

463,011 

81,728 

29.95 

5.29 

10 

15 

Nashville 

374,181 

59,034 

24.22 

3.82 

17 

17 

New  Bedford 

399,308 

81,712 

32.12 

6.59 

8 

12 

Paterson 

519,833 

88,366 

26.95 

4.58 

14 

16 

Richmond 

512,294 

83,624 

23.17 

3.78 

18 

18 

San  Antonio 

393,060 

85,814 

34.46 

7.52 

7 

10 

Scranton 

526,037 

156,591 

26.63 

7.93 

15 

8 

Springfield,    Mass. 

706,367 

165,480 

45.42 

10.64 

1 

1 

*   Data  from  Annual  Report,  United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  1915,  Vol.  II. 

for  educational  purposes  on  each  child  in  average  daily  attendance 
than  all  but  one  of  the  18  other  cities  in  the  list.  Springfield, 
Massachusetts  exceeds  it  in  per  capita  expenditures  by  nearly 
$5.00,  but  it  should  be  remembered  that  Springfield  has  a  capa- 
city for  supporting  schools  that  is  considerably  greater.  At  the 
same  time,  Grand  Rapids  ranks  third  in  19  cities  in  its  per  capita 
expenditures  for  business  purposes.  This  part  of  the  table  shows, 
then,  that  Grand  Rapids  is  not  only  liberal  in  its  expenditures  for 
schools,  but  that  it  is  comparatively  liberal  in  its  expenditures 
for  all  phases  of  school  work.  It  does  not,  however,  reveal  the 
exact  way  in  which  the  Board  is  dividing  its  financial  interests. 
Table  LXXV  and  Diagram  LXXXVI  also  show  that  whereas 
Grand  Rapids  ranks  fifth  in  19  cities  in  the  per  cent  of  its  current 
expenditures  that  it  devotes  to  business  purposes,  it  ranks  fif- 
teenth in  the  per  cent  devoted  to  educational  purposes.  Where  it 
is  spending  20.46  per  cent  of  its  school  money  for  business  pur- 
poses, Kansas  City  is  giving  25.66  per  cent,  and  Nashville  is  de- 
voting only  13.63  per  cent.  These  differences,  although  small  ab- 
solutely, are  large  relatively.  It  is  true  that  we  have  no  adequate 
basis  for  determining  what  is  the  best  percental  distribution  of 
school  money.  According  to  common  practice  among  American 


390  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


DIAGRAM    LXXXVI — Per   cent   of   current    expenditures    for    educational   and 
business    purposes, 


COST  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION 


391 


cities,  Grand  Rapids  is  spending  slightly  more  o'n  its  business 
department  than  most  other  cities.  However,  the  above  analysis 
of  the  position  of  Grand  Rapids  in  the  group  of  cities  of  its  class 
in  the  per  capita  expenditure  for  both  educational  and  business 
purposes  will  at  least  temper  the  conclusion  that  Grand  Rapids 
ought  to  spend  a  larger  proportion  of  its  income  on  the  education- 
al phases  of  its  school  work. 


TABLE  LXXV 


Per   Cent   of   Total    Current 
and  Business  Purposes. 


Expenditures    devoted   to    Educational 


CITY 

Albany     

Birmingham    

Bridgeport    

Cambridge    

Dayton    

Des ,  Moines   

Fall  River  

GRAND  RAPIDS 

Kansas  City  

Lowell   

Lynn    

Memphis    

Nashville     

New  Bedford  

Paterson    

Richmond   

San    Antonio    

Scranton    

Springfield    


Educational 
Purposes 
80.81 
86.35 
81.41 
85.21 
78.17 
81.23 
80.27 
79.54 
74.34 
78.77 
80.00 
85.00 
86.37 
83.02 
85.47 
85.97 
82.08 
77.06 
81.02 


Business 
Purposes 
19.19 
13.64 
18.59 
14.79 
21.83 
18.77 
19.73 
20.46 
25.66 
21.22 
20.00 
15.00 
13.63 
16.98 
14.53 
14.03 
17.92 
22.94 
18.98 


Rank  of  Per  Cent  of 
Total  Expenditures  Devoted  to: 


Educational 

Purposes 

12 

2 

9 

5 

17 
10 
13 
15 
19 
16 
14 
.  6 

1 

7 

4 

3 

8 

18 
11 


Business 
Purposes 

8 
18 
11 
15 

3 
10 

7 

5 

1 

4 

6 
14 
19 
13 
16 
17 
12 

2 

9 


The  distribution  of  total  expenditures  alone,  however,  does 
not  solve  the  problem  entirely.  It  has  been  recognized  for  some 
time  that  the  Board  of  Education  has  been  forced  to  pay  a  large 
amount  of  attention  to  the  physical  and  business  aspects  of  the 
schools.  The  necessity  of  this  was  noted  above  in  commenting 
upon  the  way  in  which  the  Board  distributes  its  money  between 
current  expense  and  capital  outlay.  A  careful  reading  of  the 
proceedings  and  Annual  Reports  of  the  Board  of  Education,  sup- 
plemented by  interviews  with  members  of  the  Board  and  the  busi- 
ness and  educational  departments,  leads  to  the  belief  that  there 
has  been  a  tendency  in  Grand  Rapids  to  emphasize  the  business 
aspects  of  school  development.  A  comparison  of  the  salaries  paid 
for  business  administration  and  for  educational  administration 
1910-1911  and  1915-1916  inclusive  shows  the  following  totals:** 

**   From   data    supplied   by    Business   Manager's   office. 


392  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

Business  Educational 

Administration*  Administration! 

1910-11     11,888  8,284 

1911-12     11,521  8,692 

1912-13     12,364  9,597 

1913-14      12,944  10,477 

1914-15     14,885  12,090 

1915-16     17,548  13,321 

*  Includes  salaries  of  the  business  manager  and  clerks  in  his  office ;   superintendent 

of    buildings,    school    architect,    the    director    of    the    census    and  his    clerks ;    the    svtpply 
clerk  and  assistants. 

t  Includes    salaries    of    superintendent,     assistant    superintendent,    office    assistants, 
truant  officers,  head  of  attendance  department  and  assistants. 

A  consideration  of  the  above  analysis  of  administrative  ex- 
pense emphasizes  the  belief  that  the  administrative  phases  of  a 
business  nature  have  been  the  more  completely  developed.  Due 
to  the  undeveloped  condition  of  this  branch  of  the  administration 
in  earlier  days,  it  must  be  said  that  most  of  the  addition  to  the 
business  staff  has  been  quite  necessary.  A  real  supply  depart- 
ment has  recently  been  established  that  is  handling  its  work  in  a 
very  creditable  manner.  The  repair  and  janitorial  departments 
have  been  combined  under  one  administrative  officer,  a  superin- 
tendent of  buildings  and  grounds.  This  step  was  in  line  with  the 
properly  increasing  centralization  and  co-ordination  of  school 
administration.  The  Board  has,  within  a  few  years,  established 
a  department  of  school  architecture  to  put  the  designing  and 
construction  of  its  new  buildings  on  a  purely  professional  basis. 
It  can  be  shown,  that  the  expense  in  this  connection  is  clearly 
justifiable.  A  recent  innovation  is  the  creating  of  a  permanent 
bureau  of  census  and  statistics.  Through  a  misconception  of  the 
proper  function  of  such  a  department,  it  is  being  administered 
by  the  business  manager,  and  is  included  in  the  above  table  with 
the  business  expense.  The  type  of  work  done  to  date  has  been 
such  as  to  contribute  very  largely  to  the  business  outcomes  and 
not  to  the  furtherance  of  specific  phases  of  purely  educational 
practice.  A  proposed  reorganization  of  this  department  is  dis- 
cussed later. 

Careful  consideration  of  all  phases  of  the  distribution  of  the 
Board's  expenditures  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  while  it  has 
emphasized  somewhat  unduly  the  business  aspects  of  the  schools, 
it  has  been  justified  in  doing  so  by  the  undeveloped  state  of  the 
organization  ten  years  ago.  At  the  same  time,  it  must  be  stressed 
that  the  city  is  a  leader  in  its  liberality  in  each  of  the  larger 
phases  of  school  expenditure. 

2.  The  Board's  Expenditures  Classified  in  Terms  of  Service 

Rendered 

a.  The  Larger  Aspects.  Tables  LXXVI  and  LXXVII  ana- 
lyze still  more  in  detail  the  distribution  of  the  Board's  current 
expenditures,  excluding  outlay.  They  do  so  in  terms  of  education- 


COST  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION 


393 


al  service  rendered  of  the  following  specific  types:  1.  Adminis- 
tration; 2.  Supervision  and  Instruction;  3.  Operation  of  the 
Plant;  4.  Maintenance  of  the  plant.  Tables  LXXVI  and 
LXXVII  show  for  19  cities  the  total  expenditures  for  each  of 
these  types  of  service,  and  the  per  cent  of  the  total  current  expen- 
ditures devoted  to  each  item,  with  the  rank  of  the  cities  in  the 
per  cent  devoted  to  each.  The  table  shows  that  Grand  Rapids 
is  in  the  top  third  of  the  cities  in  the  proportion  of  its  expendi- 
tures for  administration  and  maintenance  of  the  plant,  and  con- 
siderably below  the  average  in  the  proportion  of  its  expenditures 
devoted  to  supervision  and  instruction  and  operation  of  the  plant. 
This  is  largely  accounted  for  in  the  case  of  the  first  item  by  the 
above  discussion.  That  the  city  has  been  devoting  such  a  large 
proportion  of  its  income  to  maintenance  is  to  be  expected  in  view 
of  the  condition  of  the  school  plant.  With  the  constantly  increas- 
ing replacement  of  old  buildings,  the  unusual  percentage  of  cur- 
rent income  devoted  to  this  item  should  be  reduced.  It  must  be 


TABLE  LXXVI 

Distribution    of   Total    Current    Expenditures    for   various   kinds    of 
Educational  Service,  1915.* 


CITY                      Adn 
Albany 

ainistration 
14,107 
14.021 
11,252 
25,733 
17,018 
18,921 
19,255 
29,970 
35,623 
12,342 
20,728 
22,623 
16,931 
17,664 
15,586 
14,796 
17,564 
32,741 
29,923 

Report  of 

Supervision 
and 
Instruction 
381,366 
444,076 
395,022 
522,150 
457,689 
612,557 
483,393 
582,221 
373,341 
314,711 
230,439 
452,796 
366,246 
384,805 
516,153 
506,454 
388,290 
516,994 
681,762 

the  U.   S.   C 

Birmingham    
Bridgeport     
Cambridge     
Dayton   
Des  Moines  
Fall    River 

GRAND  RAPIDS 
Kansas    City   
Lowell 

Lynn  
Memphis    

Nashville 

New   Bedford  
Paterson     
Richmond 

San  Antonio  
Scranton     
Springfield 

*  Data  from  1915 

Operation 
of  Plant 
69,050 
56,544 
69,775 
77,901 
60,699 
111,512 
84,560 
87,536 
63,611 
78,803 
58,289 
52,402 
34,977 
68,720 
63,996 
53,593 
40,385 
88,447 
113,634 


Maintenance 

of  Plant 

15,378 

10,153 

15,185 

6,452 
60,805 
23,432 
31,803 
50,162 
41,107 

3,484 

.   15,322 

16,918 

15,061 

8,776 
12,464 
21,435 
32,635 
44,446 
45,717 


TOTAL 

479.901 
524,794 
491,234 
632,236 
596,211 
766,422 
619,011 
749,889 
513,682 
409,340 
324,778 
544,739 
433,215 
479,965 
608,199 
596.283 
478,874 
682,628 
871,036 


Education,  Vol.  II. 


noted  also  that  the  business  department  has  recently  adopted  the 
policy  of  building  equipment  and  furniture,  and  it  is  probable  that 
a  fairly  large  portion  of  the  1915  maintenance  is  due  to  the  in- 
clusion of  all  expenses  of  the  shop  force  whether  engaged  on  re- 
pairs or  on  the  building  of  equipment. 

Tables  LXXVI II  and  LXXIX  show  that  in  actual  per  capita 
expenditure,  Grand  Rapids  is  a  leader  in  the  degree  to  which  it 
is  supporting  each  specific  phase  of  school  work.  In  administra- 
tion, supervision  and  instruction,  and  in  total  current  expendi- 


394 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


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COST  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION 


395 


ture,  it  is  spending  more  on  each  pupil  in  average  daily  attend- 
ance than  all  but  one  of  the  19  cities  in  the  list.  Springfield, 
Mass.,  again  ranks  first.  In  operation  and  maintenance  Grand 
Rapids  is  in  the  top  third  of  the  cities,  ranking  sixth  and  second 
respectively. 

To  what  degree  is  Grand  Rapids  spending  money  on  its 
school  buildings  and  other  permanent  equipment  in  comparison 
with  the  cities  of  its  class?  Table  LXXX  and  Diagram 

TABLE  LXXVIII 


Current   Expenditures  per 
19  cities,  1915.* 

Average 

Daily 
CITY  Attendance 

Albany    10,816 

Birmingham  19,694 

Bridgeport     16,034 

Cambridge    14,524 

Dayton    15,608 

Des  Moines  15,543. 

Fall    River   ." 14,197 

GRAND    RAPIDS    14,730 

Kansas    City    12,515 

Lowell     11,065 

Lynn    12,329 

Memphis     15,462 

Nashville    15,449 

New    Bedford    12,431 

Paterson     19,284 

Richmond  22,102 

San   Antonio   11,406 

Scranton     19,755 

Springfield 15,552 


pupil   in  Average   Daily  Attendance. 


Supervision 

and 

Adminis- 

Instruc- 

Main- 

tration 

tion 

Operation 

tenance 

1.30 

35.26 

6.39 

1.41 

.72 

22.65 

2.88 

.52 

.70 

24.63 

4.36 

.95 

1.77 

35.92 

5.37 

.45 

1.09 

29.32 

3.89 

3.90 

1.22 

39.45 

7.19 

1.50 

1.36 

34.04 

5.99 

2.24 

2.03 

39.52 

5.94 

3.41 

2.85 

29.83 

5.08 

3.29 

1.11 

28.44 

7.15 

.31 

1.68 

18.69 

4.73 

1.25 

1.46 

29.28 

3.40 

1.09 

1.09 

23.70 

2.27 

.98 

1.41 

30.96 

5.54 

.70 

.81 

26.76 

3.33 

.65 

.67 

22.91 

2.42 

.97 

1.54 

34.04 

3.54 

2.86 

1.67 

26.17 

4.48 

2.25 

1.92 

43.82 

7.33 

2.95 

TOTAL 

44.36 
26.77 
30.64 
43.51 
38.20 
49.36 
43.63 
50.90 
41.05 
37.01 
26.35 
35.23 
28.04 
38.61 
31.55 
26.97 
41.98 
34.57 
56.02 


Data  from  Annual  Report  of  the  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education,   1915,  Vol.   II. 


Rank  of   19   Cities   in 
Daily  Attendance,  1915.* 


CITIES 

Albany     

Birmingham    

Bridgeport    

Cambridge    

Dayton     

Des   Moines   

Fall  River  

GRAND  RAPIDS 

Kansas  City  

Lowell    

Lynn     

Memphis    

Nashville   

New  Bedford  

Paterson    

Richmond    

San    Antonio    

Scranton    

Springfield     


TABLE  LXXIX 

Current   Expenditures   per   pupil   in   Average 


Adminis- 

Supervision 
and 

tration. 

Instruction 

11 

5 

17 

18 

18 

15 

4 

4 

14  or  15 

10 

12 

3 

10 

6  or  7 

2 

2 

1 

9 

13 

12 

5 

19 

8 

11 

14  or   15 

16 

9 

8 

16 

13 

19 

17 

7 

6  or  7 

6 

14 

3 

1 

Operation. 

17 
12 

8 
13 

2 

5 

6 

9 

3 

10 
15 
19 

7 

16 
18 
14 
11 

1 


Data  from  Annual  Report  of  the  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education,  1915, 


Main- 

tenance. 

Total. 

9 

4 

17 

18 

14 

15 

18 

6 

1 

10 

8 

3 

7 

5 

2 

2 

3 

8 

19 

11 

10 

19 

11 

12 

12 

16  . 

15 

9 

16 

14 

13 

17 

5 

7 

6 

13 

4 

1 

;ion,  1915, 

Vol.  II, 

396 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


DIAGRAM    LXXXVII — Expenditures    per    pupil    in    average    daily    attendance,    for 
capital   outlay    (Average   of   years    191Q-H    to    1914-15). 


COST  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION 


397 


TABLE  LXXX 

Average  Expenditures  for  Capital  Outlay  1910-11  to  1914-15  in- 
clusive. Total  amount  spent  and  amount  spent  per  pupil  in  average 
daily  attendance.  16  Cities.* 

Expenditure  Per  Pupil  in 
Average  Daily  Attendance : 

Average 

Daily  Attendance 
13,835 
14,375 
10,934 
16,788 
15,142 
14,596 
13,330 
17,839 
11,478 
13,474 
10,388 
14,121 
17,691 
11,921 
14,022 


CITIES 
Springfield    
GRAND    RAPIDS    . 
Lynn 

Average  Outlays 
1911-1915 
257,767.00 
191,821.40 
130,589.60 

Richmond  
Bridgeport  .... 
Des  Imiines 

178,415.60 
158,784.00 
126  630  20 

Memphis  

Paterson 

110,541.60 
144,545.80 

New  Bedford 

89,558  20 

Fall  River  
San  Antonio 

104,544.00 
78,649.20 

Nashville 

97  035  00 

Birmingham  
Kansas  City 

77,639.40 
46,471.00 

Dayton 

52  837  40 

Cambridge  

17^559.40 

14,303 


Amount  Spent 
18.63 
13.34 
11. 8S 
10.621 
10.4ST 

8.67 

8.29 

8.10 

7.80 

7.78 

7.57 

6.87 

4.39 

3.89 

3.77 

1.23 


Rank 

1 

2 

3 

4 

b 

6 

7 

8 

9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 


*  Data  from  Annual  Reports  of  the  United  States   Commissioner  of  Education, 
t  Average  Daily  Attendance  for  3  years, 
t  Average  Daily  Attendance  for  4  years. 

LXXXVII  show  for  16  cities  the  average  expenditure  for  cap- 
ital outlay  during  the  five  years  1910-11  to  1914-15  inclusive  (both 
the  total  and  average  amount  spent  per  pupil  in  average  daily 
attendance).  That  the  amount  of  money  that  a  city  spends  for 
its  school  plant  is  an  unstable  item  of  expenditure  is  well  shown 
by  Table  LXIII  and  Diagram  LXXVI.  It  was  decided  that  to 
average  such  expenditures  during  a  course  of  say,  five  years, 
would  smooth  out  any  irregularities,  and  result  in  comparable 
figures.  The  table  shows  clearly  that  Grand  Rapids,  in  terms 
of  its  capacity  to  do  so,  is  spending  more  money  per  pupil  in  aver- 
age daily  attendance  for  permanent  improvements  than  all  but 
one  of  the  cities  in  its  class.  The  discussion  that  has  been  given 
of  the  recent  attention  to  the  physical  plant  may  be  thought  to 
account  for  this  high  position.  Averaging  the  expenditures  for 
capital  outlay,  however,  for  the  five  years  1906-1910  inclusive, 
gives  an  average  expenditure  of  roughly  $190,000 — almost  iden- 
tical with  that  of  the  last  five  years,  and  an  even  higher  per  pupil 
expenditure.  During  the  past  ten  years,  therefore,  the  city  clear- 
ly ranks  at  the  head  of  the  list.  If  the  table  had  been  prepared 
ten  years  ago,  however,  as  an  average  expenditure  for  new  plant 
for  the  years  1901-1905  inclusive,  the  average  expenditure  for  all 
permanent  improvements  would  have  been  less  than  $25,000  a 
year,  giving  a  per  pupil  cost  of  about  $2.00  a  year,  with  a  conse- 
quent ranking  near  the  foot  of  the  list  of  cities. 

b.  Classification  of  Expenditures  in  Terms  of  Specific  Types 
of  Service  Rendered.  Tables  LXXXI  and  LXXXII  compare  the 
Board's  expenditures  per  pupil  in  average  daily  attendance  for 


398  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN     • 

various  specific  types  of  service  rendered  with  those  of  18  other 
cities.  In  all  but  one  small  item,  that  for  salaries  of  supervisors, 
Grand  Rapids  ranks  in  the  highest  third  of  the  19  cities.  In  the 
amount  spent  per  pupil  in  average  daily  attendance  for  salaries 
of  teachers,  it  is  exceeded  only  by  Springfield.  In  the  manner  in 
which  it  provides  educational  supplies  it  must  be  regarded  as  un- 
usually liberal.  (The  efficiency  with  which  it  administers  these 
expenditures  is  another  matter  to  be  taken  up  in  a  later  section.) 
In  its  expenditures  for  wages  of  janitors,  for  fuel,  and  for  main- 
tenance of  the  plant,  it  leads  the  other  cities,  ranking  always  in 
the  upper  third. 

Tables  LXXXI  and  LXXXII  show  that  Grand  Rapids  ranks 
relatively  low  in  the  amount  that  it  pays  for  salaries  of  super- 
visors, occupying  the  llth  or  12th  place  in  the  list  of  19  cities. 
Attention  should  be  called  to  the  fact  however  that,  expressed  in 
absolute  amount  spent  per  pupil,  the  cities  that  rank  6th  to  12th 
inclusive  vary  in  their  per  capita  expenditure  by  only  15  cents. 
It  is  possible  to  study  the  problem  further  by  asking  how  many 
supervisors  are  employed  per  1,000  pupils  in  the  different  cities. 
Obtaining  the  number  of  supervisors  and  the  average  daily  at- 
tendance from  Table  10  of  the  1915  report  of  the  United  States 
Commissioner  of  Education,  we  find  that  Grand  Rapids  ranks 
third  in  the  19  cities,  as  shown  by  Table  LXXXIII. 

Since  the  city  of  Grand  Rapids  is  spending  less  per  child  in 
average  daily  attendance  and  yet  is  supplying  more  supervisors 
per  1,000  pupils  it  must  be  paying  a  smaller  salary.  The  1913 
report  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education  gives  data 
showing  that  the  average  expenditure  per  supervisor  for  salaries 
and  expenses  of  supervisors  in  1912-13  was  $937.00. 

Adequate  data  are  not  available  to  give  a  precise  compari- 
son by  grades  of  schools  and  by  special  subjects,  of  the  cost  of 
supervision.  The  best  compilation  of  data  on  this  subject  is 
found  in  Bulletin  No.  16,  1914,  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of 
Education,  "Tangible  Rewards  of  Teaching."  Table  2  gives 
data  on  the  average  salary  paid  to  various  kinds  of  supervisors  in 
1912-13.  Unfortunately  it  reports  comparative  data  for  only  four 
cities,  those  on  scattered  types  of  supervisory  work.  They  do 
not  include  Grand  Rapids.  The  only  remaining  method  of  arriv- 
ing at  a  comparison  is  to  compare  the  average  salary  paid  in 
Grand  Rapids  with  the  average  paid  in  cities  of  the  population 
class  50,000  to  100,000  or  100,000  to  250,000.  It  will  be  at  least 
fair  to  Grand  Rapids  to  compare  the  average  salary  paid  to 
supervisors  with  that  paid  in  cities  of  the  former  class.  The  list 
is  given  in  Table  LXXXIV. 

One  fact  is  clear:     Grand  Rapids  pays  a  much  lower  salary 


COST  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION 


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TABLE  LXXXIII 

Rank  of   19   Cities   in   Number   of   Supervisors   per    1,000   Pupils   in 
Average  Daily  Attendance. 

Rank 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 

13  or  14 
13  or  14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 


CITY 
New  Bedford  
Springfield     
GRAND  RAPIDS 

Number  of  Supervisors 

12 
10 

Lowell    

8 

Bridgeport    
Dayton 

13 

11 

Paterson    

13 

Nashville     

Scranton 

9 
11 

San  Antonio  

6 

Birmingham    

Des   Moines 

10 

7 

Fall    River    

6 

Memphis                 

..  .                              7 

Albany 

4 

Lynn    

4 

Kansas   City   

Richmond 

3 

4 

Cambridge    .. 

2 

TABLE  LXXXIV 

Minimum,    Maximum    and    Average    Salary    Paid    to    Supervisors    in 
Cities  of  50,000  to  100,000. 


Type     of     Supervision         Minimum  Salary         Maximum  Salary 


Supervisor  of : 

Intermediate  Schools 

Primary   Schools   

Kindergartens    

Drawing    

Music  

Physical  Training  .... 
Manual    Training    .... 

Sewing  

Cooking     

Penmanship    

Foreign    Languages 
Miscellaneous     . 


$800 
700 
700 
675 
600 
900 
550 
760 
625 
900 
990 
900 


$1600 
1800 
1450 
2000 
2250 
2000 
2400 
1400 
1620 
1600 
1500 
2250 


Average  Salary 

$1045 
1213 
1130 
1216 
1280 
1354 
1509 
1020 
1159 
1214 
1245 
1567 


(The    salaries    paid   to    supervisors    in    the    next    larger    population    class,    100,000    to 
250,000,   are  much   higher  than  the  above   salaries.) 

to  supervisors  than  the  average  in  the  cities  of  the  population 
class  50,000  to  100,000.  Analysis  of  the  1915-1916  payroll  shows 
that  the  average  salary  paid  to  art  supervisors  is  slightly  lower 
than  the  average  paid  to  art  supervisors  in  1912-13  in  above 
group ;  that  for  music  is  slightly  higher ;  that  for  physical  edu- 
cation is  considerably  lower;  the  remainder  of  the  salaries  paid 
to  supervisors  average  much  below  (1915-16)  those  paid  on  the 
average  in  other  cities  of  the  above  class. 

Even  though  specifically  analyzed  data,  comparable  at  every 
step,  are  not  available  to  answer  the  above  questions,  we  are  at 
least  enabled  to  say  that  Grand  Rapids  is  not  paying  as  much  for 
supervisors  as  are  other  cities  of  its  class. 

The  discussion  points  to  another  outstanding  fact  which  will 


402  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

be  elaborated  in  Chapter  XV:  the  accounting  methods  of  the 
business  department  are  not  planned  so  as  to  result  in  specific 
cost  statements  measured  in  terms  of  educational  service  rend- 
ered. 

Using  the  criterion  of  prevalent  practice  as  the  standard,  this 
analysis  of  the  expenditures  of  the  Board  of  Education  leads  to 
the  conclusion  that,  with  the  exception  of  the  supervisory  phase, 
the  Board  in  disbursing  the  city's  school  money  has  taken  the 
position  that  all  phases  of  school  administration  shall  be  thor- 
oughly supported ;  that  there  is  some  evidence  that  the  Board  has 
been  giving  somewhat  disproportionate  emphasis  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  business  side  of  the  schools ;  that  the  Board  has  been 
endowing  all  other  phases  of  the  school  work  more  liberally  than 
most  other  cities  of  its  class. 

(c)    The  Relative  Extent  to  Which  Grand  Rapids  Supports 
Different  Kinds  of  Schools 

There  are  two  principal  ways  to  study  the  efficiency  of  a 
school  system's  financial  administration.  The  first  is  to  discover 
to  what  extent  it  supports  different  kinds  of  educational  service, 
e.  g.  (1)  classifying  service  as  educational  or  business:  (2)  classi- 
fying service  as  administration,  supervision  and  instruction, 
operation,  and  maintenance;  (3)  classifying  service  in  terms  of 
specific  types  of  educational  work,  such  as  teachers'  salaries, 
janitors'  salaries,  cost  of  fuel,  etc.  The  second  method  is  to  dis- 
cover to  what  relative  extent  the  city  is  supporting  different 
kinds  of  schools.  We  have  found  that,  as  judged  by  prevalent 
standards  in  cities  of  its  class  Grand  Rapids  spends  a  large 
amount  of  money  on  its  school.  It  distributes  this  money  fairly 
uniformly  throughout  different  "service-departments"  of  school 
administration.  No  one  of  the  more  important  branches  can  be 
said  to  be  really  neglected. 

The  question  therefore  arises :  "How  is  it  endowing  differ- 
ent types  of  schools?  Is  this  large  expenditure  of  school  money 
going  in  undue  proportion  to  elementary  or  to  secondary  schools? 
How  do  the  per  capita  expenditures  for  these  two  types  of 
schools  compare  with  those  of  other  cities?" 

The  data  of  Table  LXXXV  and  Diagram  LXXXVIII  and 
Tables  LXXXVI  and  LXXXVII  answer  these  questions.  Table 
LXXXV  shows  the  total  current  expenditure,  the  expenditure 
per  pupil  in  average  daily  attendance  and  the  rank  of  each  of  17 
cities  in  expenditure  per  pupil,  for  both  elementary  and  second- 
ary education.  The  interpretation  of  the  table  is  clear:  Grand 
Rapids  is  spending  more  per  pupil  in  average  daily  attendance 


COST  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION 


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404  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


DIAGRAM    LXXXVIH — Expenditures    per    pupil    in    average    daily    attendance    for 
elementary   and  secondary   education. 


COST  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION  405 

for  both  elementary  and  secondary  schools  than  all  but  one  of 
the  17  cities  in  the  list.  Measured  in  terms  of  its  capacity  to 
support  schools  the  city  is  endowing  elementary  and  secondary 
education  more  liberally  than  any  other  city  of  its  class. 

Table  LXXXVI  shows  the  per  cent  of  the  total  expendi- 
tures devoted  to  elementary  arid  secondary  schools.  Although 
ranking  near  the  top  of  the  list  in  its  actual  per  pupil  expendi- 
ture fo'r  both  elementary  and  secondary  schools,  yet  as  judged 
by  common  practice  of  the  cities  in  this  group  Grand  Rapids  is 
spending  a  rather  large  proportion  of  its  school  moneys  for  high 

TABLE  LXXXVI 

Per  Cent  of  Current  Expenditures  Devoted  to  Elementary  and 
Secondary  Schools;  also  Rank  of  17  cities.* 

Per    Cent    of    Total    Cur-  Rank    in  Per    Cent    of 

rent  Expenditures  Devot-  Total  Current  Ex- 

ed   to  :  penditures  Devoted  to : 

Elementary                Secondary  Elementary  Secondary 

CITY                                             Schools                      Schools  Schools  Schools 

Albany 77.44                          22.56  11 

Birmingham   81.78                           18.22  11 

Bridgeport    .                     88.39                          11.61  1  17 

Cambridge    75.29                          24.71  14  4 

Dayton     72.37                           27.63  17  1 

Des   Moines   ...                     77.25                          22.75  12  6 

Fall  River  79.86                          20.14  10  8 

GRAND  RAPIDS  76.65                          23.35  13 

Lowell   ...                                              82.08                          17.92  5  13 

Lynn    74.72                           25.28  15  3 

Nashville     82.25                          17.75  4  14 

New    Bedford    ..                                82.07                          17.93  6  12 

Paterson    82.82                          17.18  15 

Richmond    80.10                          19.90  9  9 

San    Antonio    83.62                           16.38  2  16 

Scranton    81.26                          19.73  8  10 

Springfield    73.52                           26.48  16  2 

*  There  were  no  data  reported   for  Memphis  and  Kansas  City,  Kansas.      Data   from 
U.   S.    Commissioner's   Report,   1915,  Vol.    II. 

schools.  The  Board  has  been  emphasizing  the  development  of 
high-school  education  not  only  in  its  building  scheme  but  also 
in  its  operating  and  maintenance  expenses.  During  the  past  five 
years  the  Board  of  Education  has  entered  upon  a  definite  policy 
of  developing  the  junior  high  or  intermediate  schools.  Since 
1910-11  the  Central  Grammar  School  has  been  developed  into  a 
fairly  complete  Junior  High  School,  and  manual  training  shops 
with  complete  equipment  have  been  added  together  with  other 
special  departments  common  to  high-school  education.  The 
Union  School  has  in  the  meantime  been  extended  to  include  all 
years  of  the  senior  high  school  with  a  consequent  enlargement 
of  staff  by  extra,  regular  and  special  teachers.  During  the  cur- 
rent year  the  new  South  High  School  has  been  opened  with  work 
extending  to  the  tenth  year.  It  is  planned  to  extend  the  work 
offered  in  this  school  one  grade  each  year  until  it  will  form  a 


406 


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DIAGRAM   LXXXIX — Number  of  pupils  per  teacher  in  high  school,   grammar  grades, 
primary    grades    and    kindergarten— 1910-1915. 


408  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

complete  six-year  high  school.  This  rapid  high-school  develop- 
ment has  meant  four  things:  1,  a  rapidly  increasing  secondary 
staff;  2,  a  parallel  decrease  in  the  size  of  class  (the  tendency  in 
these  directions  is  shown  by  Tables  LXXXVII  and  LXXXVIII 
and  Diagram  LXXXIX)  ;  3,  a  decided  increase  in  the  secondary 
payroll;  4,  a  parallel  increase  in  the  salary  schedule. 

During  the  six  years  from  September  1909  to  September 
1915  the  number  of  secondary  teachers  increased  78  per  cent, 
while  the  high-school  enrollment  increased  28  per  cent.  In  the 
same  interval  the  number  of  elementary-school  teachers  in- 
creased 19  per  cent  wth  an  accompanying  increase  in  enrollment 
of  three  per  cent.  The  building  of  a  new  high  school  invariably 
means  a  considerable  addition  to  the  secondary  staff.  With  the 
new  plant  before  them  a  Board  of  Education  will  sanction  con- 
siderable increases  in  the  number  of  new  teachers.  This  is  shown 
in  the  increase  in  September  1915,  at  which  time  22  new  teachers 
were  added  to  the  staff  with  the  opening  of  the  South  High 
School.  The  table  shows  further  that  during  the  three  years, 
1909-10  to  1911-12,  the  size  of  the  average  secondary  class  de- 
creased from  23.4  pupils  per  teacher  (based  on  average  number 
belonging)  to  19.7;  during  the  same  time  there  was  practically 
no  drop  in  the  size  of  elementary  classes.  From  1911-12  there 
was  a  marked  reduction  in  the  number  of  grammar  pupils  per 
teacher,  size  of  class  falling  to  27.2  in  1914-15.  At  the  same  time 
the  size  of  the  primary  and.  kindergarten  classes  decreased  by 
3.5  and  3.1  pupils  respectively.  It  must  be  said  on  the  whole 
however  that  there  has  not  been  as  much  recognition  of  the 
need  for  small  classes  in  the  lowest  grades  as  there  should  have 
been  to  keep  pace  with  the  reduction  in  the  upper  ones. 

At  this  point  we  need  a  comparison  of  the  size  of  class  in 
elementary  and  secondary  schools  in  the  various  cities  of  the 
Grand  Rapids  group.  Table  LXXXIX  and  Diagram  XC  supply 
the  data.  Ranking  the  cities  inversely  to  the  size  of  class  shows 
Grand  Rapids  to  stand  third  in  the  list  of  19,  with  a  secondary 
class  of  19.6.  If  the  minimum  size  of  class  may  be  taken  as 
synonymous  with  maximum  opportunity  for  the  development  of 
efficient  instruction,  then  Grand  Rapids,  among  the  cities  of  its 
class  in  the  country,  is  offering  an  unusual  opportunity  for  the 
raising  of  instructional  efficiency  in  its  high-school  classes. 

The  figures  given  above  for  its  elementary  classes  are  taken 
from  the  1915  Report  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education 
in  order  to  make  them  as  comparable  as  possible  with  the  other 
cities  of  the  list.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  commissioner's  fig- 
ures state  the  average  size  of  the  elementary  class  in  Grand 
Rapids  as  27.4  and  that  this  result  does  not  check  the  figures  in 


COST  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION  409 

Table  LXXXVIII  (as  it  gives  the  average  size  of  all  elementary 
classes).  In  that  table  (the  data  of  which  are  taken  directly 
from  the  printed  manual  of  the  Board  of  Education  1915-16)  it 
is  shown  that  the  average  size  of  the  grammar  class  is  substant- 
ially as  stated  in  Table  LXXXIX,  27.2.  At  the  same  time  the 
average  primary  class  is  32.  Using  this  figure  in  Table 
LXXXIX  shows  Grand  Rapids  to  rank  10th  instead  of  4th, 
which  is  below  the  average  in  the  list  of  cities  in  its  class.  This 
confirms  our  view  taken  above  that  the  Board  of  Education  has 
been  endowing  secondary  education  somewhat  at  the  expense  of 
primary  education.  It  is  doubtless  true  that  the  size  of  the 
grammar  grade  classes  is  small  enough  to  conduce  to  efficient 
teaching.  It  is  less  true  of  the  size  of  primary  classes. 

It  is  pertinent  to  our  inquiry  to  note  that  the  primary  en- 
rollment in  the  public  schools  has  not  increased  in  six  years.  It 
has  in  fact  decreased.  The  grammar  grades  continue  to  hold  a 
slightly  larger  group  each  year;  the  high  schools  have  shown  a 
marked  increase  in  enrolment  in  two  years. 

To  an  impartial  observer  the  facts  set  forth  above  mean 
that  the  city  does  not  have  on  its  hands  the  problem  of  housing, 
equiping,  and  teaching  very  large  increases  in  its  elementary 
school  population  each  year.  It  does  not  face,  as  Cleveland 
and  many  other  cities  do,  the  necessity  of  making  large  addi- 
tions to  the  staff  each  year  to  take  care  of  thousands  or  even 
hundreds  of  new  elementary  pupils.  If  we  can  judge  from  the 
curves  of  growth  of  the  last  fifteen  years  the  increase  in  the 
grade  population  will  undoubtedly  be  slow.  At  the  same  time, 
without  doubt,  there  will  be  a  constantly  increasing  annual  addi- 
tion to  the  enrollment  in  the  high  school.  In  this  Grand  Rapids 
is  feeling  the  same  larger  demand  for  high-school  education 
that  is  being  felt  by  the  other  cities  of  the  country.  This  all 
means  that  while  the  Board  will  probably  need  to  make  small 
additions  to  the  secondary  teaching  staff  each  year,  it  will  not 
need  to  make  the  very  large  additions  that  it  has  been  forced  to 
make  recently. 

In  this  connection  Table  CI,  inserted  later  in  the  report,  is 
of  interest.  The  data  on  the  average  size  of  class  in  different 
departments  of  the  Central  High  School  for  the  first  semester 
of  1915-16  indicate  that  Grand  Rapids  has  a  number  of  very 
small  classes  in  the  special  subjects,  e.  g.  domestic  art,  domestic 
science,  drawing  and  art,  although  it  has  developed  a  large  Eng- 
lish department.  Its  classes  in  English  are  large  (the  average  is 
30)  when  judged  by  the  common  practice.  With  these  except- 
ions the  average  size  of  class  enrolled  in  different  departments 
follows  the  average  of  all  city  high-school  classes  very  closely. 


410 


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COST  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION 


411 


DIAGRAM    XC — Number   of   pupils    per   teacher   in    elementary    and    secondary    schools. 


412  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

In  consideration  of  the  elementary  school  situation  it  should 
be  said  that  the  educational  department  has  been  giving  con- 
siderable attention  to  the  development  of  special  schools,  and 
special  types  of  work.  This  is  well  shown  in  Tables  LXXXVII 
and  LXXXVIII,  by  the  increase  in  enrollment  in  the  auxiliary 
schools  and  classes  (68  to  150  since  1911),  and  in  the  growth  of 
ungraded'  work.  At  the  same  time  the  number  of  ungraded 
teachers  has  practically  doubled,  auxiliary  teachers  have  in- 
creased from  4  to  12,  special  supervisors  from  3  to  14,  and  kinder- 
garten supervisors  from  16  to  31.  This  indicates  that  in  con- 
nection with  the  elementary  phases  of  school  work  the  attention 
has  been  given  largely  to  special  types  of  school  work. 

It  was  found  above  that  Grand  Rapids  is  spending  a  large 
amount  of  money  on  both  elementary  and  secondary  schools. 
Two  factors  could  contribute  to  this  condition:  1,  a  small 
number  of  pupils  taught  by  each  teacher ;  2,  a  large  average  sal- 
ary paid.  The  first  factor  has  been  found  to  exist;  that  is, 
Grand  Rapids  requires  a  teacher  to  teach  a  relatively  small 
number  of  pupils.  The  city  has  been  shown  to  rank  high  in  its 
attention  to  reduction  of  size  of  class  in  the  high  schools  and 
grammar  grades  of  the  elementary  schools.  We  need  the  facts 
next  as  to  the  average  salaries  paid  to  different  grades  of  teach- 
ers and  as  to  the  way  in  which  these  salaries  compare  with  those 
of  other  cities. 

Table  XC  shows  the  median  or  average  salary  paid  (accord- 
ing to 'the  1915-16  payroll)  to  various  grades  of  teachers  and  in 

TABLE  XC 

Median  or  Average  Annual  Salaries  paid  to  Various  Grades  of 
Teachers  in  Grand  Rapids  Schools,  1915-1916.* 

Amount 

1.  Central    High    School 1250  median 

2.  Union  High  School  1200  median 

3.  South    High    School    „ 1050  median 

4.  Junior  High  School : 

a.  High  School   Department 950  median 

b.  Junior    Department    850  median 

c.  Elementary    Department   850  median 

5.  Elementary   School  Teachers  800  median 

6.  Manual    Training    Teachers    1200  median 

7.  Auxiliary    School    for    Exceptional    Children 965  average 

8.  Oral   School   for   Deaf   930  average 

*  Data   from    1915-16    Payroll    of    Board    of    Education,    exclusive   of    Principals,    As- 
sistant Principals  and   Directors  of  Special   Subjects. 

the  various  high  schools.  As  has  been  indicated  elsewhere  in 
this  report  the  Board  of  Education  has  not  been  supporting  the 
three  high  schools  equally.  In  the  matter  of  salaries  paid  there 
is  also  a  progressive  increase  from  the  Junior  High  School  with 
a  median  salary  of  $950,  to  the  South  High  School  with  a  median 
salary  of  $1,050,  to  the  Union  High  School  with  a  median  salary 


COST  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION  413 

of  $1,200,  and  finally  to  the  Central  High  School  with  a  median 
salary  of  $1,250. 

Tables  XCI,  XCII  and  XCIII  compare  the  median  salaries 
paid  and  the  salary  schedule  of  Grand  Rapids  with  16  other 
cities ;  also  the  increase  in  the  salary  schedule  in  Grand  Rapids 
during  the  past  nine  years.  It  is  found  that  Grand  Rapids  leads 
the  list  again  in  the  typical  salary  which  it  pays  to  elementary 
school  teachers.  Together  with  Des  Moines  and  Lowell  it  pays 
a  median  salary  of  $800.  It  should  be  remembered  that  the 
Board  of  Education  recently  increased  the  salary  schedule  of 
elementary  teachers  for  the  third  time  in  nine  years.  Table 
XCIII  shows  how  this  growth  has  come  about.  Since  1907  the 
Board  of  Education  gradually  extended  the  number  of  years  of 
service  through  which  it  is  possible  to  secure  further  increase  in 
salary.  This  has  resulted  in  extending  the  number  of  years  for 
elementary  teachers  from  8  to  12  years  with  an  accompanying 
increase  in  possible  maximum  salary  from  $750  to  $1,000.  Thus 
Table  XCII  shows  that  the  city  now  ranks  second  in  the  maxi- 
mum salary  that  it  is  possible  for  elementary  teachers  to  secure. 
In  this  the  city  has  kept  abreast  of  the  most  progressive  practice 
in  this  country. 

The  situation  is  nearly  as  satisfactory  in  the  case  of  the 
high-school  salaries.  The  median  high-school  salary  paid  in 
Grand  Rapids  is  $1,200  and  this  places  the  city  in  the  top  third 
of  19  cities.  At  the  same  time  it  has  in  like  manner  recently  ex- 
tended its  high-school  salary  schedules  with  a  consequent  result 
that  in  12  years  of  service,  a  teacher  can  advance  to  $1,350. 
There  is  no  distinction  made  between  the  salaries  of  men  and 
women  as  in  many  other  cities,  with  the  result  that  the  maximum 
salary  possible  for  men,  places  Grand  Rapids  thirteenth  in  the 
list. 

On  the  other  hand  Grand  Rapids  ranks  13th  in  the  list  of  19 
cities  in  the  median  salary  paid  to  elementary  school  principals, 
with  a  median  of  $1,030.  (Table  XCI  presents  the  data.)  With 
the  increase  in  the  salaries  of  the  grades  and  high-school  teachers 
there  has  not  been  a  sufficient  increase  in  the  salary  paid  to  ele- 
mentary school  principals  to  bring  them  to  the  average  of  the 
group.  An  elementary  school  principal  in  Grand  Rapids  is  not 
a  teaching  principal ;  she  is  primarily  a  supervisory  officer.  The 
results  of  this  tabulation  confirm  the  discussion  made  above  of 
supervisors.  It  is  a  fair  question  whether  more  attention  ought 
not  to  be  paid  to  the  supervisory  phase  of  educational  adminis- 
tration. 


414  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


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TABLE  XCII 


Salary    Schedules    for    High    School    Teachers    (17    cities)    and    Ele- 
mentary School  Teachers   (10  cities).* 


CITY                    M 
Albany        

HIGH   SCHOOLS: 
MEN                                     WOMEN 
inimvtm        Maximum         Minimum       Maximum 
1000                  1900                    750                  1000 
1000                  1250                  1000                  1250 

ELEMENTARY 
SCHOOLS: 
WOMEN 
Minimum  Maximum 
500                  800 

Bridgeport     

Cambridge     

900,  . 

1800 

750 

950 

500 

900 

Dayton     
Des  Moines 

1000' 

1000 
800 

1500 
1400 
1800 

900 
800 
800 

1500 
1400 
1200 

700 



Full   River  ... 

GRAND  RAPIDSt 

800 

1350 

800 

1350 

500 

1000 

Kansas  City  

900 

1700 

900 

1700 

600 

930 

Lowell    

800 

2000 

650 

1000 

650 

700$ 

Lynn  

700 

1200 

650 

1100 

Memphis    

660 

1320 

480 

1320 

Nashville  

900 

1700 

900 

1700 

400 

700t 

New  Bedford  
Paterson 

1000 
1100 
810 
1000 

1700 
1800 
1800 
1250 

800 
800 
630 
1000 

1200 
1200 
1400 
1250 

550 
475 
405 
500 

875 
1050 
765 
900 

Richmond 

Scranton    

Springfield     

950 

1900 

750 

1300 



*  Data  from  following  sources:  (1)  U.  S.  Bureau  Education,  Bulletin  No.  16,  1914. 
(2)  Manuals  of  the  Board  of  Education,  Grand  Rapids.  (3)  Correspondence  with  Super- 
intendents and  Business  Managers. 

t   Data   from   1915-16   Manual   of    Board   of   Education, 
t   Accuracy  of  data  in  doubt. 


416  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


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418  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

Summary  of  the  "Cost"  Findings 

The  outstanding  facts  of  the  cost  of  public  education  in 
Grand  Rapids  are  summarized  in  Table  XCIV.  Together  with 
the  detailed  tables  and  discussion  of  the  foregoing  pages  it  sum- 
marizes the  evidence  concerning  the  statements  made  on  page 
1.  1.  We  have  shown  that  Grand  Rapids  spends  more  for  school 
purposes  per  inhabitant  than  all  but  two  other  cities  of  its  class, 
and  that  it  spends  more  for  school  purposes  per  $1000  of  real 
wealth  than  all  but  five  other  cities  of  its  class.  2.  It  devotes  a 
larger  part  of  its  municipal  income  to  the  public  schools  than 
all  but  three  other  cities  of  the  same  wealth.  3.  We  have  shown 
that  it  has  repeatedly  failed  to  take  advantage  of  its  capacity 
for  making  improvements  through  local  taxation;  that  it  has 
sold  bonds  each  year  for  such  purposes  when  all  needed  'funds 
could  have  been  raised  through  taxation  without  exceeding  the 
legal  limit.  4.  It  provides  a  larger  number  of  teachers  for  its 
elementary  schools  than  all  but  three  other  cities  in  the  group; 
and  a  larger  number  of  teachers  for  its  secondary  schools  than 
all  but  two  other  cities  in  the  group.  5.  It  pays  as  high  an  aver- 
age salary  to  its  elementary  teachers  as  any  other  city  in  the 
country  of  the  same  size  and  wealth ;  its  average  salary  to  high- 
school  teachers  is  exceeded  by  three  cities  in  the  group ;  it  de- 
votes considerably  less  money,  however,  to  the  payment  of  prin- 
cipals, ranking  thirteenth  in  a  list  of  19  cities.  6.  It  spends 
more  money  per  pupil  in  average  daily  attendance  for  business 
purposes  than  all  but  two  other  cities  in  its  class  and  more  money 
per  pupil  for  educational  purposes  than  all  but  one  other  city  in 
its  class.  7.  Although  endowing  both  educational  and  business 
purposes  so  highly  when  judged  by  its  pupil  expenditure,  the 
Board  of  Education  in  Grand  Rapids  devotes  a  larger  amount  of 
attention  to  business  matters  than  to  educational  matters  when 
compared  with  other  cities  of  the  group.  The  table  reveals  that  it 
gives  a  larger  per  cent  of  its  total  expenditures  to  business  pur- 
poses than  all  but  four  cities  of  its  class  at  the  same  time  that  it 
gives  a  smaller  per  cent  of  its  total  expenditures  to  educational 
purposes  than  all  but  four  other  cities  of  its  class.  8.  Analysis  of 
the  Board's  expenditures  for  particular  kinds  of  educational  ser- 
vice reveals  that  it  is  spending  more  than  the  average  of  the  cities 
of  its  class  for  each  general  type  of  educational  activity,  ad- 
ministration, supervision  and  instruction,  operation  of  plant,  and 
maintenance  of  plant.  9.  That  it  has  distributed  its  educational 
funds  equitably  between  current  expenditures  and  capital  outlay 
is  revealed  by  the  fact  that  it  has  spent  more  for  permanent  im- 
provements during  the  past  five  years  than  all  but  one  of  the  19 
cities  in  its  class.  10.  More  detailed  analysis  of  its  current  ex- 


COST  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION  419 

penditures  shows  that  it  has  failed  to  give  the  same  proportionate 
emphasis  to  supervision  and  instruction,  and  to  operation  of  the 
plant,  that  it  has  given  to  administration,  and  maintenance  of  the 
plant.  11.  The  Board  of  Education  in  Grand  Rapids,  while 
spending  more  per  pupil  for  both  elementary  and  secondary 
school  purposes  than  all  but  one  of  the  cities  of  its  class,  has 
given  a  larger  proportionate  emphasis  to  high-school  education 
than  to  elementary  school  education. 

Section  D.     Administrative  Policies  of  the  Board  of  Education. 

1.  Policy  of  the  Board  as  to  Source  of  Revenue  for  Capital 
Outlay. 

(a)  Financing  Permanent  Improvements  Through  Taxation. 

In  discussing  the  distribution  of  school  moneys  between  current 
expenses  and  permanent  improvements  reference  was  made 
to  the  general  policy  that  the  Board  has  established  since  1906 
of  developing  the  school  plant.  In  that  connection  we  treated 
the  general  question  of  the  development  of  school  plant  and  the 
amount  of  money  spent.  No  detailed  analysis  was  made  how- 
ever of  the  way  in  which  Grand  Rapids  is  raising  its  money  for 
permanent  improvements.  This  is  one  of  the  most  pertinent  prob- 
lems of  school  business  management. 

There  are  two  methods  by  which  the  Board  of  Education 
may  raise  funds  for  capital  outlay:  first,  by  local  taxation;  sec- 
ond, by  selling  bonds.  The  city  that  adopts  the  first  policy  at- 
tempts to  pay  for  its  school  plant  as  it  goes.  It  places  a  premium 
on  economical  methods  of  financng  the  development  of  its 
physical  plant.  It  aligns  itself  with  the  soundest  school  practice 
as  recommended  by  those  who  have  given  the  study  of  capital 
outlay  for  school  purposes  the  most  careful  attention. 

What  has  been  the  situation  in  Grand  Rapids? 

Diagram  LXXIX  shows  graphically  the  facts  set  down  in 
Table  LXIII,  the  total  possible  amount  of  money  available  for 
the  purposes  of  permanent  school  improvements  during  the  past 
10  years.  It  shows  clearly  that  the  Board  has  not  been  permitted 
in  any  year  to  take  advantage  of  even  40  per  cent  of  its  legal  ca- 
pacity for  taxation  for  improvements.  We  must  say  "not  per- 
mitted" for  there  is  distinct  evidence  that  the  Board  has  tried 
consistently  to  raise  considerable  money  for  building  purposes 
through  the  budget.  As  noted  above,  the  Board  does  not  have" 
tax  levying  power.  This  is  invested  in  the  Common  Council. 
In  making  the  budget  for  1915-16  the  only  fairly  large  item  the 
Common  Council  would  approve  was  one  for  $77,960,  for  paying 
off  maturing  bonds  and  interest.  In  addition  they  permitted  one 


420  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

item  of  $20,000  for  additional  work  on  the  South  High  School. 
Several  items  of  $35,000.00,  $16,000.00,  $17,000.00,  $13,0000.00,  for 
new  sites  development  of  certain  elementary  schools  were  all 
eliminated,  a  total  that  year  of  $135,000  in  the  matter  of  perman- 
ent school  improvements  alone.  It  seems  practically  impossible  to 
secure  approval  of  budgetary  items  for  permanent  improvements 
of  any  size.  This  is  clearly  shown  by  Table  XCV  and  Diagram 
XCI.  They  compare,  for  each  of  the  past  six  years,  the  amounts 
actually  spent  for  permanent  improvements  with  the  amounts 
that  the  Board  of  Education  attempted  to  get  from  taxation  and 
the  amounts  that  the  Common  Council  approved.  In  only  one 
year  did  the  Common  Council  approve  all  that  the  Board  of  Edu- 
cation requested.  This  was  in  1913-14  when  the  permanent  im- 
provements budget  was  composed  largely  of  an  item  for  the  pay- 
ment of  bonds  and  interest.  In  fact  during  the  six  years  the 
amounts  allowed  have  been  mainly  for  the  purpose  of  paying 
bonds  and  interest.  In  addition  small  items  for  refurnishing, 
plumbing  and  alterations  have  been  allowed. 


TABLE  XCV 

Comparison  of  the  Board  of  Education  and  Common  Council  Bud- 
gets, together  with  Amounts  spent  for  Permanent  Improvements,  1910- 
11  to  1915-16  inclusive.* 

Amount    In- 
cluded in  Com- 
mon Council  Bud- 
Total   Amount        get  to   be  De- 
Board    of  Common  Spent   for  voted   to   Pay- 
Education                    Council                    Permanent            ment  of  Bonds 
YEAR                                     Budget                       Budget                Improvements          and    Interest 

1910-11     201,443.79  107,897.11  404,466.14  49,860 

1911-12     183,166.50  121,166.50  245,751.97  78,792 

1912-13     103,785.50  97,055.50  157,159.14  80,577 

1913-14     100,089.00  100,089.00  89,880.59  64,095 

1914-15     273,792.00  126,792.00  249,594.73  101,292 

1915-16     233,310.00  98,960.00  545,771.48  77,960 

*  Data   from   Official    Proceedings   of   the    Board   of    Education. 

These  facts  are  shown  more  in  detail  by  Table  XCVI  which 
gives  the  distribution  of  the  amount  of  permanent  improvements 
paid  out  of  the  budget  in  the  ten  years  1906-15  inclusive.  It 
shows  clearly  that  the  Common  Council  adopts  a  policy  of  not 
permitting  the  buying  of  sites,  making  of  large  additions  to  build- 
ings or  erecting  new  buildings  from  the  budget.  The  annual 
budgetary  summaries  show  that  the  Board  has  consistently  tried 
to  finance  such  items  as  new  sites  in  this  manner.  That  they 
are  not  successful  is  shown  by  the  elimination  of  $133,500  from 
the  1914-15  budget.  At  the  same  time  the  Common  Council 


COST  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION 


421 


DIAGRAM   XCI — Comparison   of   Board   of   Education   Budget   for   Permanent   Improve- 
ments with  Budget  Approved  by  Common  Council. 


422  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

seldom  cuts  down,  in  any  large  measure,  the  "current  expendi- 
tures" portion  of  the  budget. 

In  this  connection  it  should  be  stated  that  the  business  or- 
ganization of  the  Board  of  Education  has  safeguarded  the  budget- 
ary procedure  very  well.  It  prepares  a  detailed  and  well-ana- 
lyzed budget  with  which  it  goes  to  the  Common  Council  for  ap- 
proval. There  is  no  doubt  that  this  tends  to  eliminate  some  of 
the  unnecessary  cutting  of  the  budget.  At  least  it  places  on  the 
Board  of  Estimate  and  the  Common  council  the  necessity  of  the 
critical  consideration  of  particular  needs  of  the  school  system  and 
tends  to  prevent  wholesale  reduction  of  the  budget. 

(b)  Bonding  policy  Concerning  Permanent  School  Improve- 
ments. We  have  established  the  fact  that  the  city  is  not  raising 
its  money  for  improving  the  school  plant  from  current  taxation. 
It  is  raising  it  by  selling  bonds.  Tables  XCVII,  XCVIII,  XCIX 
and  C  and  Diagrams  XCII  and  XCIII  answer  certain  questions 
concerning  the  Board's  practice.  To  what  extent  has  the  Board 
bonded  itself  each  year  during  the  past  30  years?  What  has 
been  the  rate  of  interest?  For  what  terms  do  the  bonds  run? 
How  are  the  bond  issues  distributed  in  the  building  plan  of  the 
Board  among  different  types  of  schools?  How  have  the  out- 
standing bond  obligations  of  the  Board  accumulated? 

Table  XCVII  states  the  amounts  of  bonds  issued  each  year 
since  1887  with  the  rate  and  term  of  each  issue.  Table  XCVIII 
and  Diagram  XCIII  show  the  total  bonded  indebtedness,  both  for 
school  and  all  city  purposes  each  year  since  1890.  This  diagram 
pictures  clearly  the  financial  aspects  of  the  building  situation  in 
the.  Grand  Rapids  schools  during  the  past  25  years.  Attention 
has  already  been  called  to  the  fact  that  from  1892  to  1908  there 
was  very  little  development  of  the  physical  plant.  Table  XCVII 


TABLE  XCVI 
Permanent  Improvements  paid  for  out  of  the  Budget  1906-1915.* 

New  Additions  to  Mis- 

YEAR                                               New  Sites              Buildings  Buildings  cellaneoust 

1915    1,000 

1914    25,500 

1913    35,994 

1912    16,478 

1911    16,500.00  13,400.00  12,474 

1910    ..                                     40,443.91  17,593.20  

1909    19,500                  66,000.00  23,500.00  15,000 

1908   ...                19,744                  14,437.00  20,992.64  3,500 

1907    13,000                  11,000.00  35,898.35  

1906   30,000.00  20,000.00 

*  Data  supplied  by  Business  Manager  of  Grand  Rapids  Public  Schools. 

t  Miscellaneous    includes :     Permanent    Improvements  to    old    buildings,  regrading, 
plumbing,  playground  work,  remodeling,  etc. 


COST  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION 


423 


TABLE  XCVII 

Total   Amount    of   Bonds    issued,    Rate    of    Interest   and   Term    for 
which  issued.* 


YEAR  Total  Amount 

1887     21,000 

1890  ..  8,000 

1892  25,000 

1892      23,000 

1892  12,000 

1892       28,000 

1905     16,000 

1905     .  16,000 

1908 30,000 

1908     30,000 

1908     .  40,000 

1908     .  75,000 

1908  75,000  4l/2 

1908     75,000  V/2 

1908     .  75,000  V/2 

1908     25,000  4Y2 

1909     25,000  4 

1909  .  25,000  4 

1910     10,000  4 

1910  13,000  4 

1910  ...  40,000  4 

1911  10,000  4 

1911  35,000  4 

1911  ..  10,000  4 

1913  25,000  4^ 

1913  35,000  4*/2 

1913  75,000  4Y2 

1913  58,000  4l/2 

1913  50,000  4l/2 

1913  65,000  V/2 

1913  40,000  4l/2 

1913       75,000  4l/2 

1913  70,000  4l/2 

1913  64,000  4r/2 

*  Data   from  Annual   Reports  of   Board  of  Education. 

TABLE  XCVIII 
School  and  City  Bonded  Indebtedness   1890  to  1915.* 


each  year. 


YEAR 

1890   

1891    

1892   

1893   

1894   

1895   

1896   

1897   

1898   

1899   

1900  ... 

1901    

1902   

1903    

1904  ... 

1905    

1906  

1907    

1908   

1909   

1910   

1911  .. 

1912    

1913    

1914   

1915 


Data  from  1915  Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education. 


School 
$211,000.00 
237,000.00 
397,000.00 
338,000.00 
351,900.00 
351,900.00 
330,000.00 
312,000.00 
297,000.00 
282,500.00 
256,000,00 
247,000.00 
237,000.00 
227,000.00 
218,000.00 
250,000.00 
204,000.00 
167,000.00 
126,000.00 
303,000.00 
508,000.00 
581,000.00 
553,000.00 
523,000.00 
649,500.00 
965,000.00 


Term  (years) 

20 
16 
17 
18 
20 

2 

3 

2 

4 

5 

6 
10 
11 
12 
13 

6 

7 

5 

6 

7 
11 
12 
13 

3 

4 
15 
16 

8 

9 
10 
11 
12 
14 


On  July   1, 

Total  City 
(Including 

School) 

$    977,000.00 

,009,000.00 

,867,000.00 

,735,100.00 

,994,000.00 

,763,900.00 

,635,000.00 

,770,000.00 

,884,000.00 

2,107,500.00 

2,057,000.00 

1,991,000.00 

2,102,000.00 

2,212,000.00 

2.212,000.00 

2,093,000.00 

1,871,000.00 

2,230,600.00 

3,150,200.00 

2,907,300.00 

3,395,300.00 

4,274,600.00 

4,371,600.00 

4,348,800.00 

4,555.300.00 

4,742,000.00 


424 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


COST  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION 


425 


426  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

shows  that  no  bonding  for  schools  was  done  for  thirteen  years 
and  practically  none  for  twenty  years,  1887  to  1909.  In  the  mean- 
time the  city  paid  off  nearly  all  its  outstanding  indebtedness,  the 
amount  dropping  in  1908  to  $126,000.  It  was  in  this  year  that  the 
Board  issued  bonds  to  the  value  of  $425,000  largely  for  high- 
school  development.  It  followed  by  small  issues  in  1909,  1910 
and  1911  and  in  1913  issued  again  for  $557,000. 

Table  XCIX  shows  for  what  type  of  schools  bonds  were  is- 
sued from  1887  to  1913.  About  two  thirds  of  the  issues  were  for 
new  high  schools,  the  remainder  going  to  new  elementary  schools 
($365,000)  and  to  additions  to  old  elementary  schools  ($97,000). 
It  is  quite  evident  from  an  inspection  of  the  bond  issues  proposed 
and  not  yet  issued,  that  the  Board  is  taking  up  a  plan  for  elemen- 
tary-school development. 

It  must  be  recognized  that  the  expenditures  for  the  past  five 
years  have  been  emergency  expenditures.  Due  to  their  size  and 
concentration  within  a  short  space  of  time  it  was  perhaps  neces- 
sary to  finance  some  part  of  this  building  scheme  from  bonds. 
But  it  seems  quite  evident  that  the  future  annual  building  for 
some  years  to  come  required  by  the  Board  could  be  financed  in 
the  budget.  The  business  department  at  one  time  studied  the  life 
of  the  buildings  in  Grand  Rapids  and  came  to  the  conclusion  that 
the  life  of  an  elementary  school  of  the  type  built  prior  to  the  re- 
cent construction  of  fire-proof  buildings  is  about  thirty-five  years. 
Thus  Grand  Rapids  will  probably  have  to  face  the  problem  of 
building  at  least  one  elementary  school  each  year.  In  addition 
to  this  it  clearly  will  be  forced  to  replace  some  of  its  older  build- 
ings at  a  more  rapid  rate.  Even  the  most  modern  type  of  fire- 
proof building,  such  as  the  architectural  department  is  now  put- 
ting up  (e.  g.  the  new  Sheldon  School)  can  be  built  for  less  than 
$100,000.  If  put  in  the  budget  this  would  mean  an  addition  of 
about  six-tenths  of  a  mill.  If  occasion  demanded,  two  or  more 
such  additions  could  be  easily  cared  for. 

The  bonds  issued  under  the  earlier  regime  were  long-time 
bonds,  generally  of  the  twenty-year  type.  There  has  been  an  at- 
tempt in  the  issuing  of  bonds  since  1905  to  issue  short-term  bonds 
and  to  distribute  the  amounts  and  term  of  the  bonds  as  evenly 
as  possible.  From  Table  C  it  can  be  seen  that  outstanding  bonds 
maturing  in  any  year  plus  those  bonds  already  authorized  but 
not  issued  are  so  distributed  as  to  mature  at  the  rate  of  about 
$100,000  a  year.  This  can  be  handled  in  the  budget  without  dif- 
ficulty. 

Thus,  granted  that  the  Board  is  forced  by  political  conditions 
to  get  its  additions  to  the  school  plant  from  bond  issues,  it  ap- 


COST  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION 


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428  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


TABLE  C 


Total   Amounts   of    Outstanding 
to  1930.* 

Year  —  June  30  to  July    1 
1915-16 

Bonds    Mat  u 

Principal 
$35,000.00 
63,000.  do 
75,000.00 
75,000.00 
75,000.00 
75,000.00 

ring    each    year.      1916 

Interest                   Total 
$41,935.00          $76,935.00 
o9,9l2  50           iu2,9i     oO 
3/,oti2  oO           112,00   .50 
33,727.50          1U6,>2   .bU 
30.3o2.50           lto,3;>    .50 
2u,977.50           10i,l>/    .50 
23,002.50             98,00     DO 
19,752.50          119,7.-,   .50 
16,490.00             66,49o.OO 
13,702.50            88,702.50 
10,440.00             80,440.00 
8,865.00              8,865.00 
7,425.00            71,425.00 
4,297.50            79,297.50 
1,305.50            59,305.50 
$315,788.00    $1,280,788.00 

Authorized  — 
Not   Issued 
$25,000.00 

1916-17  
1917-18 

1918-19  

1919-20 

1920-21  

1921-22        .          .            .                         ....            

75,000.00 
100,000.00 
50,000.00 
75,000.00 
70,000.00 

1922-23  

1923-24         .                           

1924-25  ... 

1925-26  
1926-27 

1927-28           

64,000.00 

1928-29 

75,000.00 

1929-30  
Total  Outstanding 

58,000.00 
$965,000.00 

1920-21 

1921-2? 

25,000.00 

1923-24 

50,000.00 

19?4-25 

9,000.00 

1925-26 

5,000.00 

1926-27 

75,00o.oo 

1927-28 

11,000.00 

Total    .. 

$200,000.00 

*   Data  from  1915  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education. 

pears  that  the  officers  in  charge  are  administering  the  raising  of 
the  money  in  an  efficient  manner. 

In  this  connection  the  relation  between  the  time  of  issuing 
bonds  and  the  completion  of  the  contract  for  the  payment  for 
which  they  are  issued  is  very  important.  Some  cities  have 
adopted  the  wasteful  practice  (sometimes  enforced  by  statutory 
requirements)  of  selling  bonds  months  before  the  completion  of 
the  building  contract,  the  funds  in  the  meantime  drawing  a  low 
rate  of  interest  in  the  bank.  This  Grand  Rapids  does  not  do. 
Careful  study  of  the  procedure  in  its  relation  to  building  activity 
convinces  one  that  the  business  department  is  handling  these 
matters  efficiently.  There  is  an  attempt  to  sell  the  bonds  close 
to  the  time  that  they  will  be  needed.  The  general  administration 
of  bonding  on  the  part  of  the  business  department  is  to  be  com- 
mended. 

A  condition  of  relative  freedom  from  financial  embarrassment 
does  not  justify  a  city  in  Grand  Rapids*  position  in  financing 
such  outlay  through  bond  issues.  It  is  not  difficult  to  justify  the 
continued  issuance  of  school  bonds  by  a  city  if  it  is  taking  advan- 
tage of  its  capacity  to  make  permanent  improvements  out  of  the 
budget.  It  is  very  difficult,  on  business  principles,  to  justify  the 
use  of  bonding  methods  if  it  has  a  large  unused  resource  in  taxa- 
tion. 

The  most  adequate   treatment  for  the  future  could  come 


COST  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION  429 

through  legislation  placing  the  taxing  power  in  the  hands  of  the 
Board  of  Education.  As  indicated  above,  to  do  so  would  bring 
Grand  Rapids  in  line  with  the  most  progressive  practice  in  the 
administration  of  school  finance.  The  reorganization  of  the 
Board  under  the  new  charter  10  years  ago  eliminated  political 
influences  from  the  immediate  administration  of  the  Board's  edu- 
cational and  business  services.  The  Board  should  look  forward 
to  a  reorganization  of  taxing  methods  which  will  put  the  raising 
of  school  funds  on  such  a  basis  that  real  use  can  be  made  of  a 
scientifically  planned  budget. 

Section  E.    The  Financial  Aspects  of  Intermediate  and  Second- 
ary Education. 

1.     The  Cost  of  the  High  School  Subjects. 

A  much  discussed  question  the  past  few  years  is  the  cost 
of  teaching  the  high-school  subjects.  With  the  rapid  develop- 
ment of  high-school  departments,  new  ones  constantly  being 
added,  the  older  ones  have  been  brought  on  the  defensive.  Re- 
cently we  have  had  emphasized  in  curriculum  construction  the 
purely  financial  criterion,  namely — subjects  shall  be  permitted  in 
the  secondary  course  of  study  if  they  do  not  cost  too  much.  We 
must  frankly  admit,  however,  that  we  do  not  know  how  much  the 
different  subjects  ought  to  cost.  Is  English  expensive  at  $50 
per  1000  student  hours?  Mathematics  at  $90?  Should  mathe- 
matics cost  80  per  cent  more  than  English  ?  No  one  knows.  We 
simply  know  in  the  case  of  a  few  communities  how  much  they 
do  pay.  Again  one  is  forced  to  use  the  criterion  of  common  prac- 
tice. 

In  Table  CI  the  cost  of  each  of  the  departments  of  the  Cen- 
tral High  School  is  compared  with  those  of  the  same  department 
of  high  schools  in  twenty-five  other  cities.  The  data  are  given 
for  the  two  years  1914-15  and  1915-16,  and  to  avoid  the  fluctuation 
due  to  irregularity  in  size  of  classes,  the  costs  are  averaged.  It 
must  be  noted  that  these  cities,  with  possibly  three  exceptions, 
are  not  in  Grand  Rapids'  population  class.  The  data  are  used 
here  in  this  form  merely  because  data  on  the  cost  of  high-school 
subjects  are  not  available  for  the  cities  that  have  been  used 
throughout  this  study.  It  is  merely  affirmed  therefore  that  com- 
pared with  these  twenty-five  cities,  Grand  Rapids  stands  in  the 
particular  position  noted.  If  it  had  been  possible  to  get  the  data 
on  the  cities  in  question,  we  should  have  done  so. 

Several  facts  may  be  noted  from  the  table.  The  better  es- 
tablished subjects,  e.  g.  English,  Mathematics  and  Latin,  show 
slight  fluctuations  in  cost  for  the  two  years  for  which  they  were 


430 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


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COST  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION  431 

computed.  This  means  that  the  number  of  pupils  electing  the 
subject  was  relatively  stable.  The  opposite  is  true  of  the  newer 
subjects,  domestic  science  and  art,  the  commercial  subjects. 
French  and  Spanish  enroll  but  few  students  and  slight  changes  in 
enrollment  affect  the  costs  very  considerably. 

The  data  on  size  of  class,  Table  CII,  help  us  to  understand 
the  costs  of  the  different  departments  when  compared  with  each 
other.  On  the  average,  English  teachers  teach  50  per  cent  more 
pupils  than  the  other  subjects  (drawing  excepted)  with  a  size 
of  class  of  30.  Most  of  the  other  departments  have  an  average 
size  of  class  of  about  17  to  20.  Judged  by  the  practice  of  Grand 
Rapids'  group,  the  English  classes  are  large.  Judged  by  the 
amount  of  detail  entailed  in  teaching  English,  it  might  be  ques- 
tioned whether  they  are  not  too  large.  (They  are,  of  course, 
smaller  than  those  in  many  cities.) 

Diagrams  which  were  drawn  to  accompany  Table  XXXIX 
(taken  from  Dr.  Bobbitt's  study  of  High  School  Costs  in  the 
School  Review,  October  1915)  show  clearly  where  Grand  Rapids 
is  when  compared  with  the  twenty-five  cities  for  which  data  are 
available.  Dr.  Bobbitt's  diagrams  are  so  drawn  as  to  show 
very  clearly  two  factors:  1.  the  absolute  amount  spent  for  each 
of  the  subjects;  2.  the  position  of  each  city  in  group. 

TABLE  CII 
Average  Size  of  Classes  in  Central  High  School  for  year  1915-1916.* 

No.  of  Average 

DEPARTMENTS  No.  of  Classes      Pupils  Enrolled  Class  Enrolled 

Commercial     20  339  17 

Domestic  Art  10  116  12 

Domestic   Science   6  81  14 

Drawing  and  Art  65  13 

Drawing   and   Shop    150  30 

English    46  1257  30 

French   5  87  17 

German    14  252  18 

History    20  399  20 

Latin    16  299  19 

Mathematics     28  578  20 

Science    23  509  22 

Spanish    53  18 

*  Data  from  Official  Program  of  Central  High  School  and  from  Teachers'  Semester 
Reports  on  Enrollment,  Attendance,  Etc. 

We  can  study  graphically,  therefore,  the  position  of  Grand 
Rapids  in  its  teaching  costs,  when  compared  with  these  other 
communities.  The  diagrams  show  that  in  seven  subjects  (Mathe- 
matics, History,  English,  Science,  Modern  Language,  Domestic 
Science  and  Art  and_Commercial  Studies)  out  of  nine,  Grand 
Rapids  spends  more  than  the  median  city  in  the  group.  Only  in 
shopwork  and  Latin  is  it  below  the  median.  For  English  it  pays 
almost  exactly  the  median  amount,  $52.  For  mathematics  it  is 


432  SCHOOL  SURVEY.  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

admittedly  paying  a  large  amount,  only  three  public  high  schools 
in  the  list  paying  more.  Again  it  must  be  stated  that  these  fig- 
ures are  not  thoroughly  comparable  because  in  most  of  these 
communities  the  salary  schedules  are  believed  to  be  lower  than 
in  Grand  Rapids.  According  to  our  tables,  the  household  oc- 
cupations arc  expensive  subjects  to  teach,  due  to  the  very  small 
classes  enrolled. 

These  data  on  departmental  cost  bear  out  the  analysis  made 
throughout  this  study  that  nearly  all  phases  of  education  in 
Grand  Rapids  are  expensive.  The  city  is  spending  an  unusual 
amount  of  money  on  its  schools,  on  its  high  schools  especially. 
It  is  providing  small  classes,  thereby  enhancing  the  "probability" 
of  good  instruction.  This  study  of  costs  emphasizes  the  need  for 
a  thorough  study  of  the  outcomes  of  high  school  instruction. 
Arc  the  English  classes  doing  efficient  work  under  an  average 
class  of  30?  Are  the  household  subjects  turning  out  a  product  up 
to  the  standard  demanded  by  the  very  small  size  of  class  under 
which  they  are  operating?  Can  the  high  cost  of  mathematics 
be  justified? 

This  part  of  the  survey  cannot  answer  these  questions.  The 
answer  can  come  only  through  detailed  analysis  of  the  outcomes 
of  teaching  in  each  of  the  departments.  The  cost  study  can  result 
in  the  following  statement,  however :  Grand  Rapids  is  providing 
a  good  high-school  salary  schedule  (lower  than  the  average  of 
cities  of  its  class,  nevertheless)  ;  it  is  providing  enough  teachers 
in  most  of  its  classes  so  that  the  number  of  pupils  per  teacher 
is  smaller  than  in  most  cities  of  its  class ;  it  is  paying  more  than 
the  average  for  high-school  instruction ;  it  is  housing  its  high- 
school  pupils  munificently ;  it  is  liberally  equipping  these  school- 
houses  with  apparatus  and  supplies.  In  a  word,  it  is  giving  a 
large  amount  of  opportunity  for  the  development  of  efficient  high- 
school  teaching. 

2.     The  Cost  of  Intermediate  Education. 

It  has  been  pointed  out  in  this  report  that  Grand  Rapids 
has  committed  itself  to  a  complete  program  of  reorganization 
in  the  intermediate  grades,  i.  e.  the  seventh,  eighth  and  ninth. 
Since  the  school  year  1910-11,  six  types  of  intermediate  education 
have  been  in  evidence.  These  are:  1.  The  retention  of  the  tradi- 
tional grade  form  of  instruction  in  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grades  of  many  of  the  elementary  schools ;  2.  The  gradual  de- 


COST  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION  433 

partmentalizing  of  one  of  these  grade  schools  (Sigsbee)  ;  3.  The 
retention  of  the  ninth  grade  work  in  the  Senior  High  School ; 

4.  The  segregation  of  the  seventh,  eighth  and  ninth  grade  work 
in  the  Junior  High  School   (together  with  some  lower  work)  ; 

5.  The  inclusion  of  all  grades  of  intermediate  education  in  the 
Union   School ;  6.  The  beginning  of   a  complete  six-year  high 
school,   extending  from   the   seventh   to   the   twelfth   grade   in- 
clusive. 

It  was  originally  planned  to  make  a  comparative  study  of  the 
cost  of  instruction  in  the  seventh,  eighth  and  ninth  grades  in  each 
of  these  types  of  intermediate  education.  For  this  purpose  five 
representative  grade  schools  giving  instruction  through  the  8-2 
grade  were  selected,  namely — Coldbrook,  Hall,  Lexington,  Pal- 
mer and  South  Division.  The  semester  costs  of  instruction  per 
pupil  enrolled  were  computed  for  these  schools  for  the  second 
semester  of  each  of  the  years  1911  to  1915  inclusive,  and  for  the 
first  semester  of  1915-16.  These  computations  are  believed  to  be 
valid  and  are  reproduced  in  this  report  as  Table  GUI.  They  were 
computed  from  the  teachers'  salary  rolls  and  the  teachers'  sem- 
ester reports  on  enrollment.  (The  figures  for  enrollment  are  used 
throughout  this  discussion  because  those  for  average  daily  at- 
tendance were  not  available.) 

The  data  were  next  secured  from  each  of  the  high-school 
programs  and  semester  reports  for  the  ninth  grade.  This  nec- 
essitated checking  with  the  principal's  office  the  program  for 
each  high  school  for  each  year.  The  amount  of  time  devoted 
by  each  teacher  to  the  various  year-subjects  she  taught  was 
prorated  as  accurately  as  possible.  (No  attempt  was  made  to 
include  music  and  physical  education  as  the  subjects  and  the 
classes  taught  were  so  mixed  in  grade-composition  as  to  be  un- 
analyzable.)  It  is  believed  that  the  ninth  grade  costs  are  fairly 
to  be  relied  upon.  Thus  we  can  compare  costs  for  instruction  in 
regular  seventh  and  eighth  grades  with  ninth-grade  costs  in 
high  schools,  with  but  slight  amount  of  error  in  our  judgment. 
Table  CIV  gives  the  data. 

Similar  data  were  desired  for  the  seventh  and  eighth  grade 
in  the  high  schools  giving  instruction  in  those  years.  Programs 
were  secured  and  an  attempt  was  made  to  prorate  the  time  of 
teachers  to  the  different  grades.  In  the  case  of  the  regular  grade 
teachers  it  is  felt  that  this  was  accurately  done.  With  the  special 
subjects  and  teachers  it  was  extremely  difficult  to  do  so.  The 


434 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


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matter  was  complicated  by  the  fact  that  programs  are  built  by 
subjects  and  not  by  years.  Although  the  courses  follow  a  certain 
grade  order  fairly  well,  the  enrollments  in  them  overlap.  Furth- 
ermore, in  the  case  of  the  Junior  High  School,  programs  were  not 
available  for  previous  years  by  which  all  time  could  be  accurately 
prorated.  The  special  teachers  in  this  school  could  only  divide 
their  time  by  memory,  an  extremely  insecure  basis  in  any  event. 
The  result  is  that  we  feel  that  the  figures  for  the  cost  of  instruc- 
tion in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  in  the  two  high  schools 
(Junior  and  South)  are  to  be  taken  as  only  rough  indications  of 
the  tendency  in  the  relative  costs  of  intermediate  education  dur- 
ing these  years  and  in  these  schools. 

The  figures  obtained  for  the  Junior  High  School  (1912,  1913, 
1914,  1915,  1916)  and  the  South  High  School,  first  semester  of 
1915-16  are  as  follows: 


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COST  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION  437 

Bearing  in  mind  the  limitations  in  the  validity  of  the  data, 
there  are  several  outstanding  facts  of  interest  and  importance 
in  connection  with  this  vital  problem  of  the  reorganization  of 
the  grades. 

First :  The  cost  of  teaching  both  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grades  in  the  traditional  elementary  schools  is  fairly  well  stand- 
ardized throughout  the  city.  The  cost  does  not  vary  widely  in 
any  one  grade  in  the  five  representative  elementary  schools  sel- 
ected in  any  one  year.  (This  is  contributed  to,  no  doubt,  by  the 
relative  permanence  of  the  teaching  staff,  most  of  the  upper 
grade  teachers  having  nearly  reached  the  same  salary  limit.) 
There  are  certain  exceptions  to  this  statement  in  the  data,  but 
we  have  not  the  educational  evidence  at  hand  to  trace  the  cause 
for  their  occurrence. 

Second :  It  costs  one  to  two  dollars  more  per  pupil  per  sem- 
ester to  teach  eighth  grade  pupils  than  it  does  to  teach  seventh 
grade  pupils.  In  twenty-two  instances  out  of  thirty  in  the 
above  table,  eighth-grade  costs  exceed  seventh-grade  costs.  The 
amount  of  excess  13  relatively  small,  however.  One  may  feel 
that  in  these  representative  schools  of  Grand  Rapids  the  upper 
levels  of  the  elementary  grades  are  being  financed  as  a  unit. 

Third.  Allowing  for  possible  errors  in  the  data  from  which 
costs  for  the  seventh  and  eighth  grade  instruction  in  the  Junior 
and  South  High  Schools  were  computed  it  may  safely  be  con- 
cluded that  the  segregation  of  the  upper  grades  in  the  so-called 
intermediate  school  means  a  very  considerable  addition  to  the 
cost  of  instruction.  A  semester's  instruction  in  the  regularly 
organized  eighth  grade,  costs  about  $12.00  per  pupil  enrolled.  A 
semester's  instruction  in  the  eighth  grade  as  organized  in  the 
intermediate  school  costs  very  nearly  $20.00.  A  regularly  organ-, 
ized  seventh  grade  costs  about  $11.00  per  semester;  an  "interme- 
diate" or  "junior  high  school"  seventh  grade  costs  very  nearly 
$18.00  per  semester. 

Fourth:  It  cost  relatively  little  more  for  one  semester's 
instruction  in  the  ninth  grades  of  the  four  high  schools  than  it 
does  for  the  eighth  grades  in  the  intermediate  school.  There  is 
a  difference  of  perhaps  $2.00  or  ten  per  cent  on  the  average. 
Where  eighth  grade  education  costs  about  $20.00  per  pupil  per 
semester,  ninth  grade  education  costs  about  $22.00. 

The  computations,  even  when  regarded  as  but  approximate 
in  the  determination  of  grade  costs,  point  to  the  following  con- 
clusion. The  cost  of  instruction  in  the  intermediate  grades  of  the 
city  schools  is  largely  determined  by  the  type  of  organization 
under  which  the  administration  operates.  Seventh  and  eighth 
grades  are  being  taught  under  two  particularly  different  types 


438 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


TABLE  CV 
Semester  Costs  of  Instruction  per  Pupil  Enrolled  for  Various  Special  Classes.* 


AUXILIARY    CLASSES   IN: 


Auxiliary  School 

Straight    School 

Widdicomb    School 

J 

| 

| 

I 

J 

^ 

YEAR 

"o 
5 

1 

o 
a 

1 

"o 

• 

W 

fcy 

to 

W 

fey 

W 

W 

WW 

,| 

o.^ 

^^ 

*o^2 

— 

.SJ 

PL|  — 

j3  ca-a 

.  ft 

tn'S, 

£  rt  ~d 

•  Q* 

to  O< 

^2  rt  13 

.  o. 

to  3* 

0  3 

0  3 

O  "rt  nj 

o  3 

0  3 

Q  '^"i 

0  3 

o  n 

£dH 

HcflA, 

£0* 

ufi 

Hc/i(n 

u^fi 

1901 

1906 

1911 

$800 

53 

$15  09 

$400 

15 

$26  66 

1912 

1225 

58 

21  12 

400 

18 

22  22 

1913 

1725 

59 

29.15 

425 

20 

21  25  $326  70 

18 

si"  8  15 

1914 

1830 

62 

29.51 

450 

17 

26.47 

350.00 

18 

19.44 

1915    

1830 

55 

33.27 

450 

14 

32.14 

310.25 

18 

17.23 

Data  from  teachers'  payrolls  and  semester  reports. 


TABLE  CVI 

Cost  per  Pupil  Enrolled  for  Instruction  in  (1)  The  Auxiliary  School; 
(2)  Auxiliary  Classes  in  Regular  Elementary  Schools;  (3)  The  Oral 
School  for  the  Deaf. 


YEAR 

The 
Auxiliary 
School 

Auxiliary    Classes 
in  Elementary   Schools: 

Oral 
School 
for  the 
Deaf 

Auxiliary    Classes 
in: 

Straight 

Widdi- 
comb 

Cold- 
brook 

Junior 
High 
School 

Franklin 
School 

1901 

60.7! 
59.21 
30.00 
51.85 
60.34 
40.00 
65.38 



__ 

1906                        

191  1 

15.09 
20.77 
29.15 
29.51 
33.27 

26.66 

22.22 
21.25 
26.47 
32.14 

1912 

1913 

18.15 
19.44 
17.23 

22.06 

19.77 

21.43 

1914 

1915 

TABLE  CVII 

Semester   Cost   of   Instruction   Per   Pupil   Enrolled   in   7th   and   8th 
Grades  in  two  Intermediate  Schools. 


1912  

1913  

1915  

1916  (first   semester) 


JUNIOR 

7th  Grade  8th  Grade 

24.10  15.93 

15.66  16.80 
22.23  24.05 

15.67  21.83 


SOUTH 
7th  Grade  8th  Grade 


14.03 


18.96 


COST  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION 


439 


Junior   High    School 

Coldbrook    School 

Franklin   School 

Oral  School  for  the 
Deaf 

ill 

3 
O 

a 

W 

.ft 

O  3 

vJ 

M'C. 

0  3 

CO 

.CO 

No.  of 
Pupils  Enrolled 

-d 

V 

J 

co 

•3'fi 

o*c3'c3 

No.  of 
Pupils  Enrolled 

"o 

u  C 

11 

CO 

* 

•~i*n 

"o 

c 
W 

.'o. 

O  3 

i 

*o 

O  3 

UPU 

$850 
1125 
900 
1400 
1750 
1200 
1700 

14 
19 
30 
27 
29 
30 
26 

$60.71 
59.21 
30.0l» 
51.85 
60.34 
40.00 
65.38 

$425 

22 

$19.77 

$375 

17 

$22.06 

$450 

21 

$21.43 

of  organization.  It  is  believed  that  the  above  data  show  that  one 
is  costing  much  more  than  the  other.  A  previous  section  of  this 
study  has  shown  that  the  salary  schedule  increases  with  the  in- 
crease of  general  level  taught,  that  is;  that  junior  high  school 
teachers  are  being  paid  more  than  grammar  grade  teachers, 
and  senior  high  school  teachers  are  paid  more  than  junior  high 
school  teachers. 

The  above  analysis  is  merely  a  financial  one.  It  is  not  possi- 
ble to  explain  these  costs  clearly  in  this  report  by  specific  educa- 
tional evidence.  Doubtless  there  are  educational  outcomes  of  the 
segregated  type  of  intermediate  education  that  will  justify  an 
increase  in  per  pupil  cost  of  sixty  to  seventy  per  cent.  With  such 
an  important  reorganization  as  is  involved  in  the  changes  re- 
cently made  in  this  school  system,  each  of  the  administrative 
agencies  should  be  brought  to  bear  on  an  attempt  to  evaluate 
every  phase  of  the  problem.  Among  others,  the  statistical  and 
financial  departments  could  well  make  a  detailed  analysis  of  the 
problem  of  costs  throughout  all  levels  of  education  represented 
in  the  city  system.  The  present  diversity  in  types  of  organization 
under  which  the  Grand  Rapids  school  system  is  operating  is 
fairly  unique.  The  educational  and  business  departments  have 
an  opportunity  to  carry  on  an  instructional  and  financial  inquiry 
that  would  result  in  a  distinct  contribution  to  the  solving  of  a 


440  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

very  important  problem.  The  accuracy  of  the  analysis  made  in 
this  report  has  been  partly  limited  by  inadequacy  of  historical 
data.  The  administrative  officers  could  perfect  the  methods  of 
collecting  the  data  and  would  then  be  in  a  position  to  determine 
future  procedure  by  pertinent  experimental  educational  and  fin- 
ancial evidence.  Wholesale  reorganization  hardly  should  be  un- 
dertaken without  thorough  experimentation  on  a  limited  scale 
which  would  in  turn  result  in  specific  outcomes  in  the  way  of 
principles  of  educational  and  financial  procedure. 


CHAPTER  XV 

THE  BUSINESS  MANAGE- 
MENT OF  THE  PUBLIC 
SCHOOLS 

Harold  O.  Rugg 

General  Organization 

There  are  two  major  departments  in  the  administration  of  a 
school  system :  the  educational  department  and  the  business  de- 
partment. They  both  arc  phases  of  one  educational  scheme,  the 
machinery  of  which  has  been  set  up  by  the  city  for  the  education 
of  its  children.  Each  department  may  keep  its  autonomy  just 
to  the  degree  that  it  necessarily  makes  a  specialized  contribution 
to  the  teaching  of  children. 

Grand  Rapids  administers  its  schools  through  a  dual  organi- 
zation. Its  purely  instructional  and  supervisory  affairs  are  man-j 
aged  by  a  superintendent  of  schools.  Its  material  and  busines^ 
affairs  are  managed  by  a  business  manager.  Each  major  officer 
reports  immediately  to  a  committee  of  the  board,  the  superin- 
tendent to  the  educational  committee,  the  manager  to  the  busi- 
ness committee.  The  superintendent  also  confers  with  the  busi- 
ness committee.  Diagram  XCIV  represents  the  distribution  of 
general  functions  in  the  Grand  Rapids  school  system.  It  shows 
that  the  educational  and  business  matters  of  the  board  are  being 
regarded  as  two  distinct  phases  of  school  administration.  It  is 
very  clear  that  there  is  no  one  executive  officer  over  the  whole 
school  system  who  brings  in  review  each  week,  each  month  or 
each  year  all  the  different  types  of  activity  contributing  to  the 
education  of  children. 

The  business  department  of  the  public  schools  may  be  re- 
garded as  a  very  essential  organization  to  aid  in  the  training 
of  children.  It  can  legitimately  be  regarded,  however,  only  as 


442 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


a 


i 

ft! 


>XN!S 

*£§ 


I 


m 

£    S    ?4 

s 


II 


BUSINESS  MANAGEMENT  443 

a  subordinate  part  of  the  whole  system ;  necessary,  it  is  true, 
but  subordinate  nevertheless.  Schools  are  established  for  the 
teaching  of  children.  To  administer  schools,  buildings  must  be 
built  and  equipped  (hence  we  must  have  the  school  architect)  ; 
buildings  must  be  heated,  ventilated  and  cleaned  (hence  the  jani- 
torial staff)  ;  buildings  must  be  repaired  and  kept  in  good  condi- 
tion (thus  the  permanent  repair  gang)  ;  pupils  must  be  provided 
with  utensils  and  materials  to  work  with  (hence  the  supplies 
department)  ;  administrative  officers,  teachers,  janitors,  other 
employees,  and  all  outside  creditors  must  be  paid  (therefore  the 
financial,  bookkeeping  and  auditing  department)  ;  the  people,  the 
Board  of  Education  and  administrative  officers  want  to  know 
how  much  education  costs  (so  we  have  a  cost  accounting  de- 
partment). These  are  all  very  necessary  business  functions  that 
have  grown  up  in  the  administration  of  public  schools. 

It  is  believed  by  the  Survey  Staff  that  a  dual  organization 
in  Grand  Rapids  does  not  contribute  to  the  greatest  school  effi- 
ciency. That  there  was  need  of  relating  the  work  of  the  educa- 
tional and  business  departments  the  Board  itself  has  recognized 
in  the  way  in  which  it  has  organized  itself.  It  has  attempted 
to  relate  the  work  of  the  two  departments  by  making  the  chair- 
man of  each  committee  an  ex-officio  member  of  the  other.  This, 
of  course,  merely  functions  as  a  final  review  or  check  on  the  work 
of  the  two  departments. 

There  are  several  particular  reasons  for  advocating  a  unit 
system  of  school  administration  in  Grand  Rapids. 

1.  The  historical  development  of  the  system  itself,  during 
the  past  four  years  is  indicative  of  the  need  for  a  more  unified 
form  of  organization.     The  system  has  grown  rapidly  in  size, 
teaching  staff,  types   of  educational   work   offered   by   schools, 
types  of  organization,  etc.     It  has  already  been  shown  that  the 
city  is  developing  a  new  type  of  intermediate  organization.     At 
the  same  time,  the  business  phases  of  school  administration  have 
broadened  out  rapidly,  new  departments  have  been  added  and 
centralization  of  operation  taken  place.    On  a  purely  commercial 
basis  the  business  department  has  operated  efficiently.     There 
is  little  evidence,  however,  that  there  is  complete  co-operation 
between  the  educational  and  business  departments  in  this  ex- 
pansion of  school  activities.     It  is  felt  that  large  educational 
experiments  have  been  undertaken  without  complete  studies  of 
cost  contributed  by  the  business  department,  e.  g.,  the  junior 
high  school  reorganization,  development  of  special  schools,  etc.' 

2.  The  accounting  methods  of  a  school  system  should  be 
organized  primarily  on  the  principle  that  they  must  contribute 
specific  knowledge  on   particular  phases  of  educational  work. 


444  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

A  statement  of  receipts  and  disbursements  is  not  sufficient.  It  is 
shown  in  a  later  section  that  the  funds  and  accounts  are  not  so 
organized  as  to  result  in  a  desired  statement  of  educational  ser- 
vice rendered.  It  is  true  that  a  few  types  of  educational  cost  are 
figured,  but  many  very  pertinent  types  of  cost  data  are  missing. 
This  will  necessarily  hamper  an  educational  administrative  offi- 
cer who  wishes  to  construct  school  policies  and  make  definite 
recommendations  on  the  basis  of  such. 

3.  The  preparation  of  a  school  budget  to  be  put  before  the 
Board  of  Education   for  approval   should   be   the  work  of  two 
departments  brought  together  under  one  reviewing  agency,  able 
to  judge  of  relative  values  from  an  educational  standpoint.     It  is 
felt  that  the  present  type  of  organization  makes  this  impossible. 
It  seems  clear  to  the  Survey  Staff  that  there  is  no  single  major 
officer  in  the  business  department  intimately  acquainted  with 
school    problems  or  principles  of  school   administration.      It  may 
be  questioned  whether  the  school  system  is  not  being  adminis- 
tered educationally  by  one  officer  on  educational  principles  and 
from   the   business   standpoint   by   another   officer   on    business 
principles.     A  single  major  educational  officer  will   supply  the 
necessary   "educational"   insight  to   use   the   business   organiza- 
tion in   the  improvement  of  school   practice.      (It   is   very   true 
that  the  business  department  has  worked  out  a  thorough  budget- 
ary procedure  which  is  to  be  commended  on  business  principles.) 

4.  It  has  been  shown   elsewhere  in  this  report  that  the 
Board  has  given  a  very  large  amount  of  attention  to  the  physical 
and  business  aspects  of  the  school  system  during  the  past  few 
years.     In  this  it  has  tended  to  spend  slightly  more  for  business 
purpoes  than  it  has  for  educational  purposes.     It  is  believed  that 
this  is  contributed  to  by  the  existence  of  a  dual  form  of  organiza- 
tion.    Under  the  unit  form  of  educational  control  if  there  is  a 
tendency  to  emphasize  business   expenditures,  it  will  be   done 
with  knowledge  of  the  fact  that  in  making  the  recommendations 
in  the  budget,  complete  account  has  been  taken  of  the  educa- 
tional needs  of  the  system. 

5.  The  present  school  report  of  the  Board  of  Education  is 
a  dual  report.    One  is  impressed  with  the  fact  that  certain  costs, 
computed  in  great  detail,  are  reported  each  year  by  the  Business 
Manager  with  no  educational  use  being  made  of  them.     It  will 
be  shown   later  that  the  detailed  computation  of  the  costs  of 
heating  buildings  has  not  been  used  definitely  in  the  improve- 
ment of  heating  school  buildings. 

6.  The  bureau  of  census  and  statistics,  although  primarily 
dealings  with  "educational"  facts  has  been  placed  in  the  Business 
Manager's  organization.     It  will  be  shown  later  in  this  report 


BUSINESS  MANAGEMENT  445 

that  this  has  led  to  repetition  of  the  work  of  the  department  of 
attendance  and  to  studies  of  educational  research  being  under- 
taken of  which  no  application  was  made  to  improving  school 
conditions.  The  Survey  Staff  is  convinced  that  although  the  two 
departments  (census  and  statistics,  and  attendance)  are  naturally 
one,  there  is  no  co-operation  between  them.  It  can  be  traced 
immediately  to  the  fact  that  their  superior  officers  are  under 
separate  heads  of  the  organization.  The  problem  of  re-organi- 
zation is  taken  up  later  in  another  chapter.  v 

We  shall  now  discuss  the  wrork  of  the  business  organization,    \ 
dealing  with  the  various  departments   separately.     In  addition       * 
to  what  has  been  said  above  it  should  be  stated  that  the  rules 
of  the  Board  give  the  Business  Manager  complete  supervision  of 
the  operation  and  maintenance  and  construction  of  the  plant ; 
of  the  purchase,  storage  and  distribution  of  supplies ;  of  the  tak- 
ing of   the   census   and   of  the   manipulation   of   various   school 
records ;   of   the   bookkeeping   and    financial   accounting   of   the 
Board.     Within  this  department  there  is  started  the  beginnings    ^> 
>f  a  sound  centralization  of  administration.  \ 

I.   MANAGEMENT   OF  THE   SCHOOL  PLANT 

A.      General   Organization.     The   Superintendent   of   Buildings 

and  Grounds 

Diagram  XCIV  shows  the  general  organization  of  the  man- 
agement of  the  school  plant.  The  business  manager  is  made 
immediately  responsible  for  the  management  of  the  school  plant, 
and  he  is  assisted  by  a  superintendent  of  buildings  and  grounds. 
This  officer  came  into  the  administrative  organization  under  the 
rules  of  the  Board  of  Education  adopted  in  1907.  At  that  time 
under  the  title  Foreman  of.  Building  and  Grounds,  this  person 
was  immediately  in  control  of  the  heating,  ventilating  and  gene- 
ral operating  of  buildings.  His  powers  were,  however,  quite 
largely  submerged  in  those  of  the  Business  Manager.  In  fact, 
the  rules  of  the  Board  specifically  made  the  Business  Manager 
immediately  responsible  for  all  the  duties  the  foreman  was  ex- 
pected to  attend  to.  In  1913  the  rules  were  revised,  and  the 
position  of  superintendent  of  buildings  and  grounds  was  created. 
It  is  pertinent  to  note,  however,  that  the  superintendent  was 
created  as  an  assistant  of  the  Business  Manager.  (See  Revised 
Rules  of  Board  of  Education,  Articles  48  and  49).  The  Business 
Manager  is  made  immediately  responsible  for  all  the  regular  ' 
duties  of  a  foreman  or  superintendent  of  buildings  and  grounds. 
For  example,  he  has  charge  of  maintenance  of  buildings,  repairs, 
alterations,  etc. :  has  "direct  supervision  of  the  heating  and 


446  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

ventilating  apparatus,"  etc.,  "shall  also  supervise  and  direct  jani- 
tors in  all  matters  pertaining  to  the  care  and  maintenance  of 
buildings  and  grounds ;  inspect  and  investigate  the  work  of  each 
janitor  as  frequently  as  possible,"  etc. ;  have  power  to  remove 
janitors,  etc.  The  rules  make  the  Superintendent  of  Buildings 
the  inspectorial  assistant  of  the  Business  Manager.  The  Board 
very  properly  permits  the  Business  Manager  to  recommend  the 
appointment  of  the  Superintendent  of  Buildings.  The  latter, 
however,  is  not  given  specific  power,  except  as  it  is  delegated  by 
the  Business  Manager,  to  carry  out  the  principal  functions  of  his 
office.  For  example,  the  selection  of  the  janitors  and  engineers 
on  this  staff  are  made,  according  to  the  rules,  by  the  Business 
Manager.  In  the  actual  conduct  of  the  department,  it  has  been 
true,  of  course,  that  the  Business  Manager  and  the  Superintend- 
ent of  Buildings  have  consulted  on  such  matters  and  worked  to- 
gether in  carrying  out  the  duties  of  the  office.  There  is  evi- 
dently, however,  (as  will  be  made  clearer  later)  that  the  oper- 
ating force,  being  selected  and  recommended  by  the  Business 
Manager,  in  a  great  many  cases  are  reporting  immediately  to 
him  and  not  to  their  proper  superior  officer. 

The  Function  of  a  Superintendent  of  Buildings  and  Grounds 

Proper  principles  of  business  management  would  suggest  a 
more  thoroughly  co-ordinated  department  in  charge  of  the  man- 
agement of  the  school  plant.  The  position  of  Superintendent  of 
Buildings  and  Grounds  of  a  large  school  system  like  that  of 
Grand  Rapids  should  be  a  major  executive  position.  This  officer 
at  the  present  time  has  charge  of  two  large  departments:  (1) 
the  operation  of  school  buildings  and  grounds, (  the  janitorial 
force)  ;  (2)  the  maintenance  of  buildings  and  grounds  (the  re- 
pair force).  This  entire  force  at  the  present  time  totals  nearly 
ninety  persons.  He  should,  it  is  true,  report  to  and  be  under  the 
immediate  jurisdiction  of  the  Business  Manager.  He  should, 
however,  be  made  independent  within  his  own  department.  This 
means  especially  that  he  should  select  all  the  persons  on  his 
operating  and  maintenance  staff  and  that  they  should  report  to 
him  on  all  matters  connected  with  his  department.  Careful  study 
of  the  present  administration  has  convinced  the  Survey  Staff 
that  there  is  a  tendency  among  the  members  of  the  operating 
force  to  report  directly  to  the  Business  Manager's  office  on  all 
sorts  of  matters.  This  is  probably  enhanced  by  constant  use  of 
janitors  as  messengers  to  do  errands  between  the  Board  of 
Education  office  and  the  various  schools.  (This  matter  is  dis- 
cussed more  fully  later).  It  seems  very  clear  that  to  put  the 
operating  and  maintenance  of  the  public  schools  on  a  thoroughly 


BUSINESS  MANAGEMENT  447 

business  basis  will  demand  a  more  completely  worked  out  divi- 
sion of  authority.  The  efficient  working"  of  the  staff  demands 
centralization  of  authority  in  the  hands  of  the  Superintendent  and 
the  more  complete  establishment  of  his  prestige  in  the  minds  of 
his  men. 

The  position  of  Superintendent  of  Buildings  and  Grounds  in 
Grand  Rapids  should  be  regarded  as  a  major  professional  posi- 
tion. To  impartial  outside  observers  it  is  evident  that  the  posi- 
tion has  tended  to  become  a  minor  routine  position.  A  list  of  the 
actual  activities  of  the  present  superintendent  are  impressive  in 
this  respect.  They  may  be  classified  as  follows : 

1.  Innumerable  and  unclassifiable  calls  at  the  superintend- 
ent's home  for  assistance,  information,  request  for  supplies  to  be 
made,  for  equipment,  etc.  Minor  matters  of  the  slightest  moment 
occupy  his  attention. 

2.  Office  work  at  his  office  in  the  morning  from  eight  to 
ten  o'clock.    This  office  work  is  hardly  of  an  executive  or  inspect- 
orial nature,  but  is  largely  made  up  of  clerical  duties.     For  ex- 
ample, he  takes  over  the  telephone,  personally,  thirty  to  fifty 
calls  each  morning  and  writes,  by  hand,  work  orders  for  repairs, 
orders  for  supplies,  equipment,   etc. 

3.  Checks  over  finished  work  orders  with  particular  refer- 
ence to  cost,  labor,  etc. 

4.  Requests  prices  on  lumber  and  other  materials;  confers 
on  bids,  and  prices ;  orders  materials,  etc.    The  superintendent  is 
given  power  to  order  any  material  up  to  $25.00.    Beyond  that  he 
secures  the  approval  of  the  Business  Manager. 

5.  Inspects  playgrounds  and  fields.     On  occasions  has  had 
to  personally  supervise  the  cinder  surfacing  and  rolling  of  ath- 
letic field.     Looks  after  grading,  seeding,  sodding  of  lawns,  etc. 

6.  Makes  annual  inspection  of  all  buildings  and  grounds 
during  February  and  March  for  an  estimate  of  summer  repairs. 

7.  Personaly  looks  after  regulation,  repairs  to  and  handling 
of  program  bell  systems  in  buildings. 

8.  Spends  considerable  time  in  detailed  inspection  of  en- 
gineering plant ;  personally  designs  various  parts  of  engineering 
equipment. 

9.  Superintends   installation   of   electric   lights,   call   bells, 
fire  gongs,  etc. 

10.  Has  immediate  charge  of  building  of  equipment,  furni- 
ture, etc. 

11.  Designs  and  installs  playground  apparatus. 

12.  Purchases  various  supplies  for  power  plant,  for  repairs 
and  new  equipment. 


448  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

13.  Goes  to  buildings  as  requested  by  janitors  and  princi- 
pals for  inspection  and  advice  on  special  matters. 

The  above  items  form  but  a  partial  list  of  the  duties  of  this 
executive  officer.  It  is  complete  enough,  however,  to  give  an 
adequate  idea  of  the  multiplicity  of  routine  duties  that  he  is 
forced  to  attend  to.  The  Board  of  Education  evidently  planned 
that  he  should  be  primarily  an  inspecting  assistant  to  the  Busi- 
ness Manager.  (Article  49  (a)  of  Rules).  That  he  is  not  able 
to  attend  to  these  inspectorial  duties  is  very  evident.  Interviews 
with  the  janitors  and  principals  in  over  twenty  buildings  indicate 
that  little  or  no  inspection  of  buildings  is  done.  The  rules  state 
that  the  Superintendent  shall  inspect  each  building  twice  a 
month.  The  Superintendent  has  not  inspected  the  janitors  in 
many  of  the  buildings  for  several  months.  It  is  an  open  ques- 
tion whether  such  a  rule  is  proper,  whether  such  frequent  in- 
spection as  twice  a  month  is  necessary.  It  is  evident,  however, 
that  a  superintendent  of  buildings  who  has  become  largely  a 
clerical  assistant  cannot  find  the  time  to  do  it. 

Somewhere  in  the  administration  of  the  school  plant  it 
should  be  possible  to  find  a  cost  department.  Its  proper  place 
is  immediately  under  the  superintendent  of  buildings  and 
grounds.  Due  to  the  misconception  of  the  proper  function  of 
this  officer,  no  adequate  system  of  cost  records  has  been  estab- 
lished. Although  this  matter  will  be  discussed  in  more  detail 
later,  it  is  mentioned  here  in  connection  with  the  functions  of 
the  superintendent. 

Summary  of  Recommendation  on  the  Management  of  the 

School  Plant 
To  sum  up,  then : 

1.  There  should  be  one  chief  executive  immediately  over 
the  operation  and  maintenance  of  plants,  reporting  to  the  Busi- 
ness Manager. 

2.  He  should  be  made  independent  within  his  own  depart- 
ment,   selecting   for   appointment   and    recommending   for   pro- 
motion the  men  under  him. 

3.  He  should  be  supplied  with  adequate  assistance  to  re- 
lieve him, of  much  routine  work  that  he  is  now  handling  per- 
sonally.    (A  specific  suggestion  along  this  line  is  made  in  con- 
nection with  the  repair  force.) 

4.  His  position  should  be  made  a  major  professional  posi- 
tion, executive  and  inspectorial  in  nature. 

5.  There  should  be  developed  an  adequate  system  of  cost 
records,  worked  out  and  classified  in  such  a  manner  as  to  con- 


BUSINESS  MANAGEMENT  449 

tribute   to   business   efficiency   and   to   a   specific   statement   of 
operating  and  maintenance  costs. 

B.    The  Operation  of  Buildings :    The  Janitorial  Force 

The  school  buildings  of  Grand  Rapids  are  being  operated  by 
a  relatively  stable  janitorial  force.  Out  of  twenty-two  janitors 
visited,  none  had  been  in  the  system  less  than  three  years,  and 
many  had  served  seven  years  or  more.  An  attempt  was  made  to 
secure  from  the  records  of  the  Business  Manager  and  Superin- 
tendent detailed  information  on  the  tenure,  previous  training  and 
experience  of  janitors.  It  should  be  emphasized  that  no  such 
complete  records  are  available.  The  only  record  on  hand  is  a 
file  of  application  cards  for  positions  in  the  service.  These  cards 
are  seldom  really  used  in  determining  the  selection  of  new  men, 
and  are  of  no  assistance  in  determining  promotion.  It  seems 
clear  that  a  complete  system  of  records  concerning  the  janitorial 
and  repair  force  should  be  installed. 

The  force  being  relatively  stable,  few  new  appointments 
are  made  in  any  one  year.  When  these  are  made,  however,  no 
service  records  are  at  hand  to  aid  the  Superintendent  and  Busi- 
ness Manager  in  their  selection.  This  is  perhaps  not  of  so  much 
moment  in  the  selection  of  new  men  as  it  is  in  the  promotion 
of  old  ones.  In  the  latter  case  unrecorded  impressions  of  the 
men,  supported  only  by  the  personal  judgment  of  the  principals 
over  them,  control  the  promotion  to  larger  and  better  buildings. 
There  is  some  evidence  of  a  feeling  on  the  part  of  janitors  that 
the  methods  of  promotion  ought  to  be  more  impersonal  and  based 
on  actual  record  and  service.  This  is  not  possible  unless  the 
records  of  service  are  recorded.  This  in  turn  calls  for  more  fre- 
quent inspection  of  buildings  and  more  constant  check  on  the 
work  of  the  staff. 

When  new  men  are  employed,  proper  care  is  taken  in  in- 
troducing them  to  the  janitorial  work  and  the  work  of  running 
the  heating  and  ventilating  plants.  New  men  are  first  placed  on 
the  staff  of  one  of  the  high  schools  as  caretakers  and  are  given  an 
opportunity  to  fire  under  supervision  before  being  put  in  sole 
charge  of  even  a  low  pressure  boiler.  The  precaution  of  the 
business  department  in  this  matter  is  to  be  commended.  In  the 
newer  buildings  having  elaborate  mechanical  equipment,  fan  sys- 
tems of  ventilating,  etc.,  specially  trained  men  were  brought  in 
to  instruct  the  regular  janitors  promoted  to  the  buildings.  It  is- 
of  interest  to  note  that  very  many  of  the  janitors  have  had  boiler 
and  firing  experience  prior  to  joining  the  operating  staff  of  the 
school  system.  The  staff  in  charge  of  the  engineering  plants  in 


450  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

the  high  schools  are  recruited  from  men  who  have  had  boiler 
and  engine  experience  of  some  sort. 

Inspection  of  twenty-two  buildings  leads  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  routine  work  of  cleaning,  most  of  the  buildings  is  being 
well  done.  The  rooms  are  swept  once  a  day,  vacuum  cleaners 
being  installed  in  several  of  the  buildings.  From  the  standpoint 
of  sanitation  the  use  of  cleaners  can  be  justified.  Figures  ob- 
tained from  one  of  the  janitors  who  had  kept  a  record  of  time 
required  to  clean  buildings  with  and  without  vacuum  cleaners, 
showed  a  reduction  of  time  in  favor  of  the  cleaner  of  more  than 
twenty-five  per  cent.  The  floors  in  a  majority  of  the  buildings 
have  been  oiled.  The  oiling  is  done  twice  a  year  generally  and 
in  case  of  some  buildings  is  being  carefully  supervised.  In 
others  it  is  causing  complaint  from  principals.  Windows  are 
washed  between  two  and  three  times  a  year  in  most  buildings  of 
the  system. 

Janitors'  Salaries 

The  buildings  of  the  Grand  Rapids  school  system  are  of  all 
ages  and  sizes.  The  typical  size  is  from  eight  to  twelve  rooms. 
There  are  but  few  elementary  buildings  larger  than  twelve  rooms, 
however,  and  but  few  smaller  than  eight.  In  the  assigning  of 
janitors  to  different  buildings,  assignment  to  the  larger  build- 
ings is  regarded  as  promotion.  This  is  due  to  the  method  of  pay- 
ing janitors.  They  are  paid  on  a  basis  of  a  minimum  number 
of  rooms,  $13.50  a  week  for  eight  rooms  with  an  additional  50 
cents  a  week  for  each  additional  room  cared  for.  Extra  pay  at 
the  rate  of  25  cents  a  classroom  used  is  given  for  evening  school 
and  extra  pay  is  given  for  social  centers  and  branch  libraries. 
These  extra  items  enable  the  janitors  in  some  schools  to  earn 
much  more  than  the  teachers  in  the  buildings. 

The  problem  of  how  best  to  pay  janitors  is  a  mooted  one, 
and_a  very  difficult  one  to  solve.  The  scheme  used  in  Grand 
Rapids  does  not  equitably  distribute  salary  in  terms  of  service 
rendered.  It  takes  no  account  of  the  actual  floor  space  (in 
rooms)  to  be  cleaned,  of  window  space  to  be  washed,  of  halls  to 
be  cleaned  (which  are  not  included  in  the  schedule  and  \vhich  in 
the  older  buildings  form  a  very  considerable  part  of  the  entire 
floor  space  of  the  building),  of  the  lawns  to  be  cut  (which  are 
of  very  uneven  size  throughout  the  city  and  vary  widely  in  diffi- 
culty of  cutting),  of  sidewalks  to  be  cleaned  (which  vary  widely 
in  area),  of  the  age  and  condition  of  the  building,  floors,  and  heat- 
ing plant  in  the  building.  (These  vary  widely  and  always  react 
to  the  disadvantage  of  the  janitor  in  the  old  building). 

It  is  doubtless  true  that  all  of  the  above  factors,    which  en- 


BUSfXKSS   MANAGEMENT  451 

ter  into  the  efficiency  of  janitorial  service,  cannot  be  adequately 
taken  account  of  in  a  salary  schedule.  It  is  believed,  however, 
that  all  but  those  factors  having  to  do  with  the  age  and  condi- 
tion of  building  and  equipment  and  type  of  grounds  can  be 
thoroughly  evaluated  in  a  schedule.  Salaries  could  well  be  paid 
in  terms  of  area  of  floors  cleaned  (rooms  and  halls),  windows 
cleaned,  lawns  cut  and.  sidewalks  kept  in  order;  heating  could 
be  paid  for  in  terms  of  type  of  plant  janitor  is  required  to  handle 
and,  either  cubic  feet  heated  or  number  of  rooms,  taken  as  a 
standard.  Buildings  could  be  classified  and  differentiated  in  tin- 
salary  scale,  operating  in  terms  of  type  of  heating  and  ventilating 
equipment  and  in  terms  of  age  and  condition  of  buildings. 

It  is  evident  that  the  business  department  should  make  a 
detailed  study  of  this  problem,  rinding  out  what  is  done  in  other 
cities  of  its  class  and  effecting  a  thorough  change  in  the  manner 
of  paying  janitors.  Several  cities  now  have  the  sort  of  standardi- 
zation worked  out  which  is  outlined  above  and  correspondence 
indicates  that  such  a  method  can  be  administered  satisfactorily. 
We  append  with  this  report  an  abstract  of  the  methods  employed 
in  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah,  and  Albany,  New  York,  as  illustrative 
of  how  other  cities  are  attempting  to  standardize  their  building 
maintenance. 

We  give  herewith  the  approximate  salary  paid  per 
month  to  janitors  in  nine  cities,  worked  out  on  an  eight-room 
basis.  This  enables  us  to  compare  the  salaries  paid  in  Grand 
Rapids  with  those  in  eight  other  cities.  These  data  have 
been  secured  by  correspondence  with  the  cities  in  question,  and 
although  not  absolutely  comparable  with  those  in  Grand  Rapids, 
have  been  reduced  to  roughly  the  same  basis.  In  some  cases  (as 
in  Scranton)  the  payroll  was  sent,  in  which  case  the  median 
salary  paid  was  computed.  Table  CVIII  gives  the  complete 
data  on  this  question.  It  can  be  seen  that  there  is  no  agreed- 
upon  standard  in  the  payment  of  janitors.  Our  tabulations  show 
that,  in  terms  of  service,  Grand  Rapids  pays  a  lower  salary  to 
janitors  than  all  but  two  cities  in  the  list.  At  the  same  time,  it 
is  recognized  that  in  absolute  amount  paid,  some  of  the  janitors 

TABLE  CIX 

Approximate  Monthly  Salary  paid  to  Janitors;  computed  on  an  8- 
room  basis. 

Lowell   ...  $80.00 

Paterson     70.83  to  79.17 

Kansas  City   62.00 

Scranton 60.00 (median) 

Albany     60.00 

Bridgeport     58.33 

Grand    Rapids    54.00 

Nashville     40.00 

Richmond 32.00 


452 


SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


in  the  system  may  receive  a  much  higher  salary  than  that  here 
indicated.  In  many  of  the  other  cities  this  would  be  true  also, 
however,  and  it  is  believed  that  the  data  indicate  roughly  the 
position  of  the  cities.  These  facts  reinforce  the  view  expressed 
above  that  there  should  be  a  complete  revision  of  the  methods 
of  assigning  buildings  and  paying  janitors. 


TABLE  CVIII 
Data  on  Janitors'  Salaries  for  Elementary  Schools  in  9  Cities.* 


CITIES 

Basis 

Salaries 

Number  of 

Minimum 

Maximum 

1 

2 

3 

4 

Lowell 

$840 

$960 

Paterson 

No    standard   unit 

Janitors 
$850 
Assistant 
$700 
Engineer 
$900 

$950 

$850 
$1000 

Kansas    City 

12   for  first  4 
rooms    per    room 
per  month.     Addi- 
tional rooms  $3.50 
a   month   each. 

$12.00 

$24.00 

$36.00 

$48.00 

Scranton 

No  standard  unit. 

$10  per 
month 

$125  per 
month 

Albany 

$66  per  room 
(class,    gymna- 
sium,  manual 
training  —  any 
room  that  is  re- 
gularly    maintain- 
ed.) 

$60 

$125 

Bridgeport 

$50  per  room  per 
annum. 

$50  per 
year 

$700  per 
year 

$50.00 
( 

$100.00     $300.00    $400.00 

per  annum  with  fur- 
naces) 

Grand  Rapids 

$13.50  per  week 
for  8  rooms.     $.50 
a  week  extra  per 
additional    room. 

Nashville 

About  $5  per 
room  per  month. 

Richmond 

$5  per  room  per 
month. 

Rooms   less   than    10    rooms    $5 
for  each  per  month    (year 
12   months.) 

*  Data  compiled  from  correspondence,  reports,  etc. 


BUSINESS  MANAGEMENT 


453 


Repairs  made  by  Janitors.  At  least  four  months  of  the 
school  year  a  janitor  has  to  pay  relatively  slight  attention  to  the 
heating  plant  in  his  building.  This  and  other  causes  have  re- 
sulted in  the  janitors  of  the  Grand  Rapids  school  system  making 
many  minor  repairs  to  buildings.  These  include  repairing  seats 
and  desks,  locks  of  doors,  adjusting  loose  shelves,  putting  in  win- 


Rooms 

Approximate 
Average   Sal- 
ary Paid  Per 
Month  on  an 
8-room  Basis. 

Remarks 

5 

6 

7 

8 

8-12 

10-16 
jr  more 

Assem- 
Hafls 

$80.00 

$70.83 
to 
79.17 

$51.50 

$55.00 

$58.50 

$62.00 

62.00 

$1.75  per  toilet  room. 
$1.00  for  care  of  uniform. 

60.00 
median 

Median     worked     from 
payroll. 

60.00 

$550.00 

$600.00 

$650.00 

$700.00 

Added 
$50  per 
room 

Added 
$25  per 
room 

Equal 
to  2 
rooms 
at  $25 
each 

58.33 

High-school  hall  consid- 
ered equal  to  4  rooms  at 
$25  each;  High  School 
rooms  used  for  two  ses- 
sions $5  per  room  an- 
nually. 

54.00 

40.00 

For  8-room  buildings 
varies  from  $35  to  $40 
per  month. 

$2  per 
month 

$6  per 
month 

32.00 

Principal  and  teachers' 
rooms  $3  each  ;  knuter- 
garten  $7.50;  manual 
training  $3  ;  fireman  $55 
per  month  ;  scrubwomen 
$25  per  month. 

454  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

clow  glass,  etc.  Those  who  are  trained  to  do  so  make  the  minor 
steam-fitting  repairs.  In  this,  the  business  department  is  ad- 
ministering its  work  efficiently.  It  is  expensive  to  call  a  shop- 
man to  make  minor  repairs  which  the  janitor  is  able  to  make. 
The  survey  staff  feels  that  this  aspect  of  the  buildings  manage- 
ment is  taking  care  of  itself. 

Janitors  and  Principals  do  not  approve  or  oversee  repair 
work  done  in  the  building.  When  repairs  are  needed  in  the 
building*,  the  usual  procedure  is  for  the  principal  or  janitor  to 
call  up  the  repair  shop  and  request  the  work  to  be  done.  The 
authority  and  responsibility  here  is  divided;  neither  principal  or 
janitor  is  made  definitely  responsible  for  ordering  and  approving 
the  repairs.  These  repair  orders  are  not  generally  followed  up 
by  written  requisition  as  planned  by  the  Business  Manager.  The 
same  lack  of  responsibility  is  true  in  connection  with  the  check- 
ing of  the  work  done  by  the  repair  force,  and  the  time  spent  on 
the  job  by  the  workmen.  It  could  not  be  established  that  work- 
men report  to  the  repair  office  on  arriving  at  or  leaving  jobs. 
In  this,  from  a  few  concrete  instances,  it  is  believed  there  is  op- 
portunity for  soldiering  on  the  job  which  has  been  taken  advan- 
tage of  in  some  cases. 

Repairs  by  outside  firms.  Repairs  to  be  made  by  outside 
firms  are  ordered  in  the  same  way,  through  the  Superintendent's 
office.  He  in  turn  orders  the  work  to  be  done  by  written 
requisition.  It  is  quite  common  for  estimates  to  be  obtained 
from  the  outside  companies  although  many  times  this  is  not 
done.  No  check  is  obtained  on  the  amount  of  time  spent 
on  the  job  by  the  contractor's  workmen.  In  most  cases  thorough 
inspection  of  the  completed  job  is  not  given.  Neither  the  jani- 
tors nor  principals  hold  themselves  responsible  for  this  sort  of 
thing.  When  the  bills  come  in,  according  to  statement  of  prin- 
cipals, they  are  sometimes  approved  over  the  telephone  and 
sometimes  the  bill  itself  is  sent  to  them  for  approval.  The 
Superintendent  has  given  one  instance  in  which  an  outside  re- 
pair, billed  at  $14.00,  was  reduced  to  $8.00  on  the  matter  being 
checked  up  by  him.  Such  instances  point  to  the  need  of  in- 
spection of  outside  repair  jobs. 

Use  of  Janitors  on  Summer  Repair  Gangs.  About  live  to 
seven  weeks  of  the  summer  time  of  the  janitors  is  put  in  on  vari- 
ous permanent  repair  gangs.  After  selecting  a  few  of  the  older 
men  to  care  for  the  lawns  and  smaller  repairs  in  the  buildings,  the 
balance  are  divided  up  into  gangs  of  from  three  to  nine  men, 
carpenters,  painters,  steam  fitters  and  plumbers,  cement  crew, 
varnish  crew,  etc.  This  practice  on  the  whole  may  be  com- 
mended as  an  economical  means  of  getting  the  annual  repair 


BUSINESS  MANAGEMENT*  455 

work  done.  The  Superintendent  of  Buildings  should  make  a  very 
careful  study  of  the  annual  repair  problem  each  year  and  build 
up  a  complete  system  of  records,  both  of  service  of  men,  cost  of 
labor,  materials,  etc.,  on  jobs.  The  annual  repair  cost  is  a  very 
considerable  item.  It  should  be  studied  critically  from  year  to 
year.  There  are  indications  that  the  Superintendent  has  been 
undertaking-  this  sort  of  procedure,  but  it  is  believed  that  from 
the  coat  standpoint  it  needs  to  be  more  thoroughly  worked  out. 

The  handling  of  janitor's  supplies  has  been  taken  over  by  the 
regular  supply  department  of  the  school  system.  Methods  of 
ordering  by  regular  requisition  have  been  put  in  and  a  system  of 
office  checking  established.  The  janitors  order  their  supplies 
for  the  next  year  in  the  spring  on  a  thoroughly  worked  out, 
printed  requisition.  The  purchase  and  distribution  of  janitors' 
supplies  have  been  well  standardized.  Beyond  this  there  is  little 
check  on  the  amount  of  supplies  used,  the  condition  of  janitors' 
equipment,  etc.  Several  buildings  visited  were  found  to  con- 
tain a  large  collection  of  material.  For  example,  in  one  building, 
eight  large  floor  brushes  were  counted  in  the  janitor's  room,  with 
pails  and  other  janitorial  equipment  to  match.  As  will  be  indi- 
cated in  the  discussion  on  the  handling  of  supplies,  there  is  a 
need  for  oversight  of  the  handling  of  supplies  in  the  buildings. 
It  is  felt  that  there  may  be  considerable  waste  at  this  point  in 
the  school  management. 

There  is  little  regular  inspection  of  janitorial  service  in 
buildings.  As  noted  above,  it  is  impossible  for  the  Superintend- 
ent of  Buildings  to  make  the  semi-monthly  inspection  required  by 
the  Board's  rules.  The  condition  of  the  janitors'  premises  in 
most  of  the  buildings  was  found  to  be  good  by  the  visiting  mem- 
ber of  the  Survey  Staff.  The  condition  of  some,  however,  was 
not  up  to  standard.  Methods  of  storing  wood  and  coal  and 
cleanliness  of  boiler  rooms  should  be  looked  after  in  some  cases. 
Janitors  report  that  there  is  no  attempt  made  to  acquaint  them 
with  the  cost  of  heating  their  building  as  compared  with  other 
buildings  in  the  city.  The  business  department  figures  the  cost 
per  room  of  heating  each  building  each  year.  These  figures  are 
available  for  the  past  ten  years,  and  supply  some  valuable  data 
on  heating  costs.  No  evidence  could  be  discovered  that  any  use 
was  made  of  these  figures.  Janitors  and  engineers  are  not 
checked  up  in  their  use  of  coal,  and  inspection  of  the  heating 
equipment  of  buildings  has  not  followed  the  computation  of 
the  costs. 

There  is  a  great  diversity  in  the  heating  costs  of  buildings 
of  the  same  type  and  size.  Of  the  twelve-room  buildings  in  the 


456  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

city  which  do  not  have  fan  systems  of  ventilation,    the  costs  for 
Juel  per  classroom   in  1914-15  were  as  follows: 

$41.12 
39.93 
37.19 
35.68 
35.48 
34.14 
26.17 

There  are  other  more  striking  instances  of  diversity  in  cost 
of  heating  buildings.  To  heat  the  Oakdale  school  during  the 
past  three  years,  it  has  cost  as  follows :  $41.90,  $54.26,  $53.00,  an 
increase  of  nearly  $13.00  per  classroom  in  one  year.  At  the  same 
time,  there  was  no  increase  in  the  heating  costs  of  half  the  build- 
ings in  the  city.  The  figures  for  the  Stocking  school  were : 

1912-13  „ $36.62 

1913-14  51.82 

1914-15  37.93 

Six  other  buildings  in  the  city  showed  an  increase  or  de- 
crease in  heating  cost  of  at  least  $10.00  per  classroom.  Other 
striking  cases  of  irregularities  in  costs  could  be  enumerated  from 
the  Business  Manager's  Report. 

We  believe  it  should  be  stressed  that  the  computation  of 
these  cost  data  should  be  definitely  followed  up  in  the  different 
buildings.  Buildings  of  the  same  size  and  approximately  the 
same  type  should  not  show  such  a  diversity  in  heating  costs. 
The  same  building  should  not  show  an  increase  of  $10.00  per  year 
per  classroom  when  others  show  decreases  under  seemingly  like 
conditions.  It  may  be  that  most  of  the  differences  could  be  ex- 
plained by  those  in  charge  of  the  buildings.  It  has  been  definitely 
stated,  though,  by  over  twenty  janitors  that  no  such  explanation 
is  demanded  of  them  and  no  attempt  made  to  apply  the  cost 
data. 

The  business  department  has  developed  a  system  of  check- 
ing the  cost  of  water,  light  and  gas.  Monthly  statements  are 
sent  each  building,  comparing  the  cost  of  the  three  items  in  the 
current  year  with  those  of  the  previous  year.  This  is  to  be 
commended  as  a  step  in  reducing  waste  in  such  materials.  Visits 
to  the  buildings  have  convinced  the  Survey  Staff,  however,  that 
some  of  the  janitors  do  not  guard  against  the  waste  of  water, 
light  and  gas.  In  several  buildings  the  janitors  do  not  shut  off 
the  water  after  school  hours.  This  means  a  large  loss  in  water 
rates.  Other  buildings  were  found  in  which  conscientious  care 
is  taken  of  such  matters,  water  being  turned  off  between  classes 
at  noon  and  between  the  close  of  school  and  the  opening  of  the 
evening  classes.  The  writer  of  this  report  went  into  several 
elementary  schools,  on  bright  days,  in  which  large  electric  lights 


BUSINESS  MANAGEMENT  457 

were  burning  in  well-lighted  halls.  On  the  whole  it  is  felt  that 
the  great  need  of  this  branch  of  the  business  department  is  thor- 
ough inspection. 

C.    The  Maintenance  of  the  Buildings:    The  Repair  Force. 

The  second  largest  division  of  the  business  department  is  the 
repair  department.  During  the  last  ten  years  the  business  or- 
ganization has  developed  a  permanent  repair  force.  Prior  to  1910 
it  was  a  small  force  hired  primarily  to  attend  to  miscellaneous 
small  repairs.  It  was  a  separate  department  reporting  through 
its  foreman  directly  to  the  Business  Manager.  In  1912-13  the 
general  school  plant  was  administered  by  a  Superintendent  of 
Buildings  and  Grounds  (to  whom  the  repair  force  was  made  re- 
sponsible) and  a  chief  engineer  over  the  engineering  equipment. 
In  1913-14  a  further  centralization  was  effected,  bringing  all 
phases  of  the.  management  of  the  school  plant  together  under  the 
Superintendent  of  Buildings  and  Grounds. 

In  the  meantime  the  repair  force  and  its  payroll  increased  as 
shown  below: 

TABLE  CX 

t 

Payroll  of  Repair  Force.* 

1910-11                    1911-12  1912-13 

Total    Payroll    $5,713.36                 $8,576.79  $7,472.79 

Force  consisted  of  foreman,   1   carpenter,   1    painter,  1   steam   fitter    for  above  years. 

1913-14                    1914-15  1915-16 

Total   Payroll    $7,910.67                 $9,915.84  $12,475.00 

In  1913-14  force  consisted  of  superintendent  (one-half  time),  1  carpenter,  1  painter, 
1  steam  fitter,  1  helper,  1  shop  man,  1  general  man. 

In  1914-15  added  1  carpenter  and  1  painter. 

In  1915-16  force  consists  of  superintendent  (one-half  time),  1  clerk,  1  janitor,  2 
carpenters,  1  steam  fitter  and  helper,  1  painter  and  3  shop  men. 

*   Data  supplied  by  Assistant  to  Business  Manager. 

Thus  the  force  has  grown  in  six  years  from  a  minor  force  of 
a  foreman  and  three  men  to  a  force  of  a  foreman  and  nine  men, 
in  addition  to  receiving  a  fair  proportion  of  the  time  of  the  Sup- 
erintendent of  Buildings  and  Grounds. 

It  should  be  stated  that  one  reason  for  the  large  growth 
of  this  force  is  the  establishment  of  a  policy  of  building  school 
furniture,  equipment  and  apparatus.  During  the  year  and  a  half 
following  July  1st,  1914,  the  repair  force  built  furniture  and  equip- 
ment to  the  value  of  $6,577.  The  Superintendent  of  Buildings  and 
the  School  Architect  made  a  comparison  of  the  actual  cost  of 
building  with  the  cost  as  shown  by  bids  and  list  prices  of  outside 
firms.  They  estimate  a  saving  in  this  connection  of  twenty 
per  cent  or  $1,644.  It  is  impossible  to  check  completely  the  ac- 
curacy of  this  estimate  of  costs  under  the  two  methods  of  ob- 


458  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

taming  furniture,  but  it  is  believed  that  a  saving  to  the  schools 
has  resulted.  If  the  policy  is  to  be  continued  definitely,  there 
should  be  a  very  accurate  comparative  study  of  the  cost  of  con- 
structing various  types  of  furniture  and  equipment.  This 
would  put  the  buying  and  construction  of  school  furniture  on  a 
sound  cost  basis. 

The  procedure  in  ordering  repairs  has  been  referred  to  above. 
It  was  said  that  orders  are  quite  generally  telephoned  into  the 
repair  office  where  they  arc  written  down  on"  a  work  order  blank. 
This  work  order  blank  could  well  be  redesigned  with  a  view  to 
more  detailed  listing  of  special  items  of  repairs,  cost  statements 
of  labor  and  materials,  etc.  A  duplicate  of  this  work  order  goes 
to  the  business  manager  who  files  it  in  his  desk.  It  was  found 
that  the  superintendent's  work  order  file  is  not  complete,  even 
for  the  past  two  years.  No  adequate  system  of  recording  and  fil- 
ing repairs-jobs-facts  is  to  be  found  in  this  office.  For  example, 
the  attempt  to  get  a  detailed  statement  of  the  time  that  elapsed 
between  the  ordering  of  a  repair  and  the  completion  of  it  was 
unsuccessful  due  to  the  fact  that  a  record  is  not  made  immediate- 
ly at  the  completion  of  the  job  itself.  Furthermore,  there  is  no 
written  confirmation  of  a  telephone  request  for  repairs.  This 
could  easily  result  in  repairs  not  being  made  for  Some  time  after 
the  time  requested.  Examination  of  the  work  order  file  showed 
that  it  was  common  for  ten  to  twenty  days  to  elapse  between  the 
date  of  order  of  the  repair  and  the  completion.  If  it  is  the  fault 
of  the  method  of  handling  repairs,  that  should  be  improved. 
Emergency  repairs  to  heating  equipment,  plumbing  and  steam 
fitting,  etc.,  are  evidently  attended  to  promptly.  The  force  in- 
cludes a  plumber  and  steam  fitter,  and  a  fair  division  of  skilled 
labor  is  represented  in  its  make-up. 

Work  orders  are  generally  not  investigated  unless  the  job  is 
unusual  and  something  that  cannot  be  adequately  estimated  and 
described  over  the  telephone  by  the  janitor  or  principal.  On 
many  small  jobs  this  is  of  course  not  essential.  On  others  it  is 
very  essential  that  a  preliminary  investigation  be  made  prior  to 
the  workmen  being  sent  to  the  job.  It  is  believed  that  this  is 
being  handled  satisfactorily. 

Transportation  of  Workmen  and  Materials. 

The  cost  of  small  repair  jobs  is  contributed  to  by  the  item  of 
transportation  of  men  and  materials.  The  school  map  indicates 
clearly  that  the  location  of  the  repair  shop  is  not  well  planned 
from  the  standpoint  of  accessibility  to  the  school  buildings  of  the 
city.  It  is  located  in  the  abandoned  Second  Avenue  School  in  the 


BUSINESS  MANAGEMENT  459 

first  ward.  Only  one  school  in  the  city  lies  to  the  south  of  it. 
A  glance  at  the  school  map  makes  clear  its  inaccessibility.  No 
convenient  cross-town  car  lines  help  out  in  the  situation.  Men 
are  very  largely  transported  to  jobs  by  the  car  lines,  and  this 
necessitates  a  considerable  expenditure  of  time  away  from  the 
job.  The  Superintendent  has  an  automobile  on  which  a  box  has 
been  placed  to  transport  small  quantities  of  materials.  He  is 
away  from  the  office  much  of  the  time,  however,  and  is  seldom 
available  to  transport  the  men.  Due  to  the  necessity  for  con- 
stant movement  from  building  to  building  it  is  clearly  a  wise 
expenditure  to  supply  the  Superintendent  with  an  automobile. 

The  question  of  transporting  general  supplies  and  materials 
for  the  repair  has  been  discussed  for  some  time  by  the  business 
department.  A  plan  is  under  consideration  of  providing  a  light 
auto  truck  for  the  use  of  both  the  supply  department  and  repair 
force.  With  the  delivery  of  regular  supplies  organized  as  it  is 
now,  we  believe  this  will  be  a  wise  expenditure.  More  will  be 
said  of  this  matter  later  in  discussing  the  handling  of  supplies. 

Job  Costs  on  Repairs. 

Somewhat  recently  the  Superintendent's  department  has 
started  a  system  of  keeping  job  costs  on  repairs.  To  date,  this 
has  consisted  of  an  estimate  of  the  cost  for  labor  and  material, 
written  on  the  back  of  the  work  order  and  filed  by  buildings. 
If  at  any  time  a  special  type  of  job  comes  up  upon  which  cost 
data  should  be  wanted,  the  discovery  of  this  cost  material  is 
difficult.  As  noted  in  the  discussion  of  the  operating  force,  what 
the  building  department  needs  more  than  anything  else  is  an  ade- 
quate method  of  inspection  and  a  complete  system  of  records, 
both  on  the  personnel  and  cost  of  the  service.  Following  the 
installation  of  such  a  record  system,  it  needs  the  appointment  of 
a  competent  officer  to  keep  it  up. 

At  the  present  time  the  Superintendent  of  Buildings  has  no 
regular  assistant.  He  has  a  clerk,  paid  $6.00  a  week,  and  a  boy 
acting  as  janitor  and  general  helper  at  $6.50  a  week.  The  former 
position  should  be  merged  into  a  larger  position  for  at  the  present 
time  there  is  not  enough  purely  routine  work  to  keep  such  a 
clerk  busy.  It  is  believed  that  some  combination  of  positions  can 
be  made  in  the  staff  of  the  Business  Manager  which  will  result 
in  more  efficient  assistantship  to  the  building  executive.  It  is 
believed  that  the  size  of  the  school  system  and  the  larger  expen- 
diture for  operation  and  maintenance  of  buildings  and  grounds 
justifies  the  creation  of  a  cost  accountant  somewhere  in  the 
business  management.  With  the  many  excellent  features  of  the 


460  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

business  administration  of  the  Grand  Rapids'  schools,  one  aspect 
might  well  be  supplemented :  its  cost  accounting.  Especially  is 
this  true  of  the  operating  and  maintenance  departments.  The 
immediate  officers  of  the  system  are  the  best  ones  to  decide  at 
what  point  in  the  organization  to  work  out  changes  in  the  present 
scheme.  That  it  is  needed  in  the  buildings  department  is  evident. 
The  suggestion  is  therefore  made  that  any  change  effected  in  the 
whole  organization  take  thorough  account  for  the  needs  of  new 
records  and  an  adequate  cost  system  in  connection  with  the 
Superintendent's  office. 

Monthly  Statements  to  the  Board. 

Recently  the  Superintendent  of  Buildings  has  begun  the  mak- 
ing of  monthly  itemized  reports  to  the  Board  on  repairs  done 
and  furniture  built.  In  each  case  the  statement  shows  the  cost  of 
labor  and  materials  on  specific  jobs,  listed  by  buildings.  In  the 
same  report  the  outside  repairs  for  the  month  are  stated.  This 
method  of  reporting  is  to  be  commended.  The  rules  of  the  Board 
require,  however,  a  report  on  the  general  condition  of  school 
buildings.  This  is  not  being  made  in  the  detailed  form  that  is 
needed.  The  Business  Manager  has  recently  made  a  complete 
annual  inventory  of  school  property.  This,  however,  is  not  aimed 
at  being  a  thorough  inspection  of  buildings  from  the  structural 
standpoint. 

The  budgetary  procedure  is  such  that  funds  for  making  re- 
pairs are  always  on  hand.  The  making  of  necessary  repairs  is  not 
hampered  by  lack  of  funds  for  these  purposes. 

Outside  Repairs. 

The  repairs  made  by  outside  companies  form  a  comparatively 
small  portion  of  the  total  repairs  made.  They  consist  largely 
of  electrical,  steamfitting  and  plumbing  work  that  cannot  be 
handled  by  the  regular  repair  force.  These  repairs  are  ordered 
through  the  central  repair  shop,  that  is,  no  one  is  permitted  to 
go  directly  to  an  outside  company  and  order  work  done.  As 
indicated  in  the  discussion  on  janitors,  there  is  a  weakness  in  the 
lack  of  inspection  of  the  repair  work  done  and  it  is  felt  that  some 
loss  has  come  about.  There  should  be  some  one  responsible 
for  approving  repair  work  done  by  outside  companies  and  check- 
ing the  time  spent  on  the  job.  Under  the  present  organization 
the  Superintendent  of  Buildings  and  his  foreman  of  repairs  have 
not  the  time  to  do  this.  The  janitor  could  be  made  responsible 
for  checking  the  time  spent  and  some  method  of  inspection 
should  be  worked  out. 


BUSINESS  MANAGEMENT  461 

Annual  Inspection  and  Summer  Repairs. 

The  larger  repairs  to  school  buildings  are  made  in  the  sum- 
mer time  by  repair  gangs,  composed  of  janitors  working  under 
the  direction  of  men  from  the  regular  repair  force.  It  has  already 
been  said  that  Grand  Rapids  is  bringing  itself  in  line  with  good 
business  practice  in  this  connection.  The  city  gets  the  services 
of  the  men  in  this  work  for  from  five  to  seven  weeks.  The  first 
step  in  these  summer  repairs  comes  in  the  preparation  by  the 
principals  and  janitors  of  lists  of  needed  repairs  to  their  build- 
ings. These  lists  aid  the  Superintendent  of  Buildings  and  the 
Foreman  of  Repairs  in  determining  what  repairs  to  estimate  on. 
These  two  officers  visit  the  building  during  February  and  March 
and  estimate  the  cost  of  improvements  and  recommend  those  that 
seem  most  needed.  At  this  time  the  cost  of  each  job  is  estimated 
by  general  impression  and  stated  in  round  numbers.  If  any- 
thing, the  estimates  are  generally  made  much  higher  than  the  real 
cost  of  the  job.  Complete  cost  records  on  such  jobs  are  not 
available.  These  estimates  are  then  compiled  by  buildings  and 
itemized  by  specific  jobs,  mimeographed  and  sent  to  the  Common 
Council  and  Board  of  Estimates  for  consideration  with  the  pro- 
posed budget.  This  method  of  acquainting  the  Common  Council 
with  the  purpose  of  each  item  in  the  maintenance  fund  is  excel- 
lent and  serves  to  prevent  wholesale  cutting  of  the  budget. 

With  the  approval  of  the  budget  the  business  organization 
determines  what  repairs  on  the  list  can  be  made.  The  work  is 
done  in  the  summer  by  the  gangs  described  above.  In  the  mean- 
time no  notice  is  sent  to  buildings  as  to  exactly  what  repairs  will 
be  made.  Principals  and  janitors  do  not  know  until  the  opening 
of  school  sometimes  whether  certain  repairs  are  to  be  made  or 
not.  The  need  for  study  of  costs  on  these  summer  repairs  was 
spoken  of  above.  On  the  whole,  the  procedure  of  the  business 
department  in  handling  annual  repairs  is  to  be  commended. 

Summary  of  Conclusions  on  the  Operation  and  Maintenance  of 

School  Buildings 

1.  The  school  buildings  of  Grand  Rapids  are  being  operated 
by  a  relatively  stable  janitorial  force. 

2.  Detailed  information  concerning  the  previous  training, 
experience,  tenure  and  efficiency  of  janitors  is  not  compiled  by 
the  building  department.    A  complete  system  of  records  should 
be  established  and  kept  up  to  date. 

3.  Service  records  not  being  available,  promotion  is  not 
sufficiently  determined  by  actual  service. 

4.  The  building   department   safeguards   the   children   by 


462  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

training  janitors  in  the  use  of  heating  apparatus  prior  to  giving 
them  responsible  charge  of  school  buildings. 

:\  The  scheme  used  in  Grand  Rapids  for  paying  janitors 
does  not  distribute  salary  equitably  in  terms  of  service  rendered. 
The  present  room  basis  of  payment  should  be  supplemented  by 
a  schedule  which  will  take  account  of  age  of  building,  type  of 
heating  plant,  floor,  window,  hall,  sidewalls  and  lawn  area.  In- 
quiry shows  that  the  city  pays  its  janitors  less  than  the  average 
for  cities  of  its  class. 

6.  A  considerable  amount  of  minor  repair  work  and  summer 
repair  work  is  done  by  the  janitorial  force.     This  is  efficient  use 
of  the  Board's  employees.     There  is  not  a  sufficiently  well-work- 
ed-out  scheme  of  inspection  and  supervision  of  repair  work  both 
by  the  Board's  mechanics  and  by  outside  firms. 

7.  The  routine  duties  of  the  Superintendent  of  Buildings 
prevents  systematic  and  thorough  inspection  of  janitorial  service. 
The  appointment  of  an  Assistant  Superintendent  of  Buildings  is 
recommended. 

8.  The  need  for  the  installation  of  accurate  cost  records  and 
the  consistent  following  up  of  them  is  most  evident.     There  are 
striking  instances  of  diversity  in  unit  heating  costs  among  build- 
ings and  in  the  same  building  over  a  series  of  years. 

9.  The  buildings  department  has  recently  initiated  the  poli- 
cy of  building  school  furniture  and  equipment.     Adequate  cost 
accounting  schemes  should  accompany  this  innovation.     At  the 
present  time  it  is  not  possible  to  determine  from  sound  and  com- 
plete records  the  wisdom  of  continuing  this  policy. 

TABLE  CXI 
Payment  for  Years  1906-1916  to  Outside  Architects  and  Engineers.* 

Robinson  Wernette,  Smith, 

and  Bradfield  Hinchmen 

YEAR  Campau  and  Mead  and  (Iryles  Totals 

1906      809.64  284.37  1,094.01 

1907      2,023.38  487.85  2,511.23 

1908      2,439.42  572.87  3,012.29 

1909      23,380.25  2,537.77  25,918.02 

1910  .  2,099.42  2,616.01  4,715.43 

1911      1,750.71  3,397.32  5,148.03 

1912      4,058.19  336.01  123.19  4,517.39 

1913      2,325.24  2,325.24 

1914     5,959.95  2,514.17  13.50  8,487.62 

1915  .  737.74  1,354.87  116.65  2,209.26 

1916      155.35  155.35 

*  Data   supplied   by   Business   Department. 

D.    The  Construction  of  the  School  Plant. 

In  the  chapter  on  the  financial  aspects^ the  establishment  of  a 
definite  policy  of  developing  the  school  plant  was  discussed.  To 


BUSINESS  MANAGEMENT  463 

carry  this  through,  the  Board  has  gradually  built  up  a  depart- 
ment of  school  architecture.  The  large  items  of  new  construction 
undertaken  in  the  past  five  years  are  (1)  the  Central  High 
School ;  (2)  the  South  High  School ;  (3)  the  Lexington  School ; 
(4)  the  Franklin  School ;  (5)  the  Sheldon  School.  For  the  de- 
signing and  inspection  of  the  first  two  the  Board  has  employed 
outside  architects.  The  designing,  drawing  up  of  specifications 
and  inspection  in  the  latter  three  were  done  under  the  supervi- 
sion of  the  School  Architect.  The  Board  began  its  development 
of  the  School  Architect's  department  by  employing  the  present 
school  architect  for  the  designing  of  special  school  equipment. 
In  the  past  six  years  he  has  gradually  taken  over  all  the  architect- 
ural work  for  the  Board.  We  give  in  Table  CXI  a  statement  of 
the  money  spent  for  professional  services  to  architects  and  engi- 
neers since  the  beginning  of  the  ten-year  period  of  building  de- 
velopment. The  large  items  in  1909,  1912  and  1914  to  the  local 
architects  were  for  services  in  connection  with  the  high  schools. 
During  the  past  two  years  no  money  has  been  spent  for  outside 
architectural  services.  In  the  meantime  the  three  new  element- 
ary schools  were  built.  This  work  has  added  to  the  staff  of  the 
School  Architect  until  now  he  has  three  draftsmen  and  part-time 
stenographic  service. 

The  writer  of  this  report  has  made  an  inspection  of  the  work 
of  this  department.  He  has  examined  the  facilities  for  and 
methods  of  getting  out  plans  and  specifications;  he  has  studied 
the  plans  and  specifications  of  the  elementary  schools  built  by 
the  department ;  he  has  made  a  careful  examination  of  the  type 
of  work  and  inspection  done  in  the  building  of  the  new  Sheldon 
school ;  he  has  collected  cost  records  of  school  buildings  both  in 
the  Grand  Rapids  system  and  outside. 

As  a  result  of  this  survey,  he  is  prepared  to  commend  hearti- 
ly the  work  of  this  department.  It  is  working  on  a  thoroughly 
professional  basis.  The  citizens  of  Grand  Rapids  can  feel  that 
their  newest  elementary  schools  compare  favorably  with  those 
built  in  other  cities.  They  are  designed  with  regard  for  the  best 
principles  of  school  hygiene,  sanitation  and  architecture.  School 
architecture  is  a  profession  in  itself.  It  is  becoming  evident  in 
these  days  that  the  general  practitioner  in  architecture  is  not  so 
well  equipped  to  work  out  the  problems  in  this  field  as  is  the 
specialist  trained  in  the  field.  We  have  no  hesitation  therefore 
in  approving  the  type  of  work  being  done  under  the  school 
architect's  direction. 

A  pertinent  question  arises  in  this  connection.  Granted  that 
the  new  elementary  schools  are  well  planned  and  built,  how  does 
their  cost  compare  with  those  of  similar  type  built  in  other  cities? 


464  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

We  give  in  Table  CXII  the  data  on  cost  of  fire-proof  elemen- 
tary schools  in  Grand  Rapids  and  four  other  cities  of  its  class; 
also  in  five  cities  in  the  largest  population  class  for  which  com- 
parative data  happen  to  be  available.  The  data  on  the  former 
four  cities  were  obtained  from  the  business  departments  of  each 
of  the  cities.  We  believe  they  are  comparable  with  those  from 
Grand  Rapids. 

There  are  three  units  employed  in  computing  schoolhouse 
costs:  (1)  the  cost  per  classroom;  (2)  the  cost  per  pupil  ac- 
commodated ;  (3)  the  cost  per  cubic  foot.  Let  us  compare  the 
costs  of  Grand  Rapids  with  those  in  these  nine  other  cities  for 
each  of  the  three  units.  Table  CXII  gives  the  data  in  detailed 
and  summary  form. 

Judged  by  the  standards  of  construction  in  vogue  in  the  cities 
of  its  own  class,  the  city  is  paying  about  an  average  price  for 
new  elementary  schools.  If  the  comparison  is  extended  to  in- 
clude the  buildings  built  in  the  five  larger  cities  the  unit  costs  are 
proportionally  much  smaller  in  Grand  Rapids.  The  city  ranks 
second  and  third  in  the  list  of  ten  cities  in  unit  costs.  The  table 
gives  assurance  at  least  that  the  establishment  of  a  school  archi- 
tect in  Grand  Rapids  has  not  meant  an  increase  in  comparative 
costs.  The  South  High  School  was  built  recently  by  local  archi- 
tects in  the  city  at  a  cost  of  fourteen  cents  per  cubic  foot,  almost 
exactly  the  same  cost  as'  in  the  case  of  the  three  elementary 
schools. 

The  overhead  cost  for  professional  services  (plans,  specifica- 
tions and  inspection)  on  these  buildings  is  an  important  question. 
Criticism  has  been  made  of  the  large  overhead  cost  on  school 
buildings  under  the  present  scheme  of  organization.  To  deter- 
mine the  status  of  this  question  the  cost  of  professional  services 
were  secured  on  three  elementary  schools,  and  Franklin,  Lex- 
ington and  Sheldon,  and  the  two  high  schools  built  by  outside 
firms.  Comparative  data  are  also  available  from  seven  of  the 
cities  included  in  the  table.  The  data  secured  seem  to  show  that 
it  costs  slightly  more  to  design  and  inspect  buildings  under  the 
school  architect's  department  than  it  does  under  outside  archi- 
tects. The  achitect's  fee  on  the  two  high  schools  was  3.5  per 
cent.  Professional  service  on  the  three  elementary  schools  ran  to 
5.46  per  cent,  6.17  per  cent  and  10.03  per  cent.  Professional  ser- 
vices in  the  five  larger  cities  ran  less  than  five  per  cent  in  all  ex- 
cept Boston.  The  excessive  cost  in  the  case  of  the  Sheldon  school 
has  been  explained  by  the  School  Architect,  by  showing  that  a 
change  in  the  plans  of  the  Board  of  Education  necessitated  two 
complete  sets  of  plans.  It  should  be  noted,  of  course,  that  much 
time  actually  given  to  the  preparation  of  plans  for  fixed  equip- 


BUSINESS  MANAGEMENT 


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BUSINESS  MANAGEMENT  467 

mcnt,  making  up  the'  detailed  estimates  for  furnishing  of  new 
buildings,  etc.,  has  been  prorated  to  the  cost  of  these  new  build- 
ings. On  the  whole  it  is  questionable  if  the  actual  cost  has  been 
any  greater  under  the  present  scheme  than  under  that  which  uses 
outside  architects.  Aside  from  the  mere  financial  criterion,  there 
is  no  doubt  that  the  Board  gets  a  sound  return  from  its  expen- 
diture in  the  way  of  specialized  professional  services. 

II    The  General  Supply  Department  of  the  Schools. 

General  Supplies.  The  supply  department  of  the  Grand 
Rapids  school  system  handles  an  annual  business  of  over  twenty- 
five  thousand  dollars.  To  a  certain  degree  the  smoothness  with 
which  instruction  proceeds  depends  on  the  efficiency  of  this  de- 
partment. The  successful  manipulation  of  a  business  of  this 
size  demands  a  thoroughly  co-ordinated  organization  operating 
on  sound  business  principles.  Important  to  the  success  of  the 
administration  of  this  department  is  the  way  in  which  its  ma- 
chinery is  planned  to  fit  the  instructional  needs  of  the  system. 

The  business  organization  in  Grand  Rapids  includes  a  very 
well-worked-out  supply  department.  It  is  directly  managed  by 
the  Supply  Clerk,  whose  staff  consists  of  four  persons,  an  office 
assistant,  a  receiving  and  billing  clerk,  a  shipping  or  routing 
clerk  and  a  delivery  man  who  give  a  certain  amount  of  time  to 
the  repair  force.  The  Supply  Clerk  is  selected  by  the  Business 
Manager  and  reports  to  him  for  approval  on  practically  all  pro- 
cedure except  routine  matters.  There  may  be  a  question 
whether  the  supply  clerk  should  not  have  a  little  more  independ- 
ence in  his  work.  The  Supply  Clerk's  organization  appears  to  be 
working  smoothly  in  most  places. 

The  purchase  of  supplies  in  a  big  city  school  system  needs 
to  be  standardized  and  safeguarded  in  the  extreme.  No  supplies 
should  be  bought  except  through  the  central  supply  department. 
In  this  respect  the  Grand  Rapids  schools  arc  in  the  lead.  They 
are  working  out  a  safe  and  efficient  method  of  buying  supplies. 
\o  supplies  can  be  bought  by  teachers  or  principals.  All  must 
secure  their  materials  through  the  central  office.  Furthermore 
no  supplies  are  sent  from  the  central  storeroom  except  on  writ- 
ten approval  of  the  Supply  Clerk  or  his  authorized  assistant.  It 
is  believed  that  this  is  a  sound  method  of  handling  the  matter. 

Supplies  are  bought  annually  on  specifications  which  are 
being  carefully  worked  out.  Orders  for  all  such  supplies  are  sub- 
ject to  bid.  Bids  are  tabulated  and  stock  selected  that  best  fits 
the  needs  of  the  department.  This  procedure  throughout  is  to  be 
commended  as  businesslike.  The  department  is  now  working 
on  the  standardizing  of  specifications  for  various  types  of  sup- 


468  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

plies.  Those  include  all  stationery  and  various  papers;  pens 
and  erasers;  pencils;  ink;  art  and  manual  training  materials; 
blackboard  material;  cooking,  hardware,  paint  supplies  and 
dry  goods.  The  Survey  Staff  feel  that  the  work  that  is  being 
done  in  this  direction  is  in  line  with  sound  business  practice. 
There  have  been  some  complaints  from  a  few  principals  of  the 
poor  quality  of  pens,  paper  and  ink.  The  supply  department 
has  initiated  special  studies  of  the  standardizing  of  certain  of 
these  materials,  and  it  seems  to  be  improving  the  way  in  which 
its  work  its  adapted  to  the  efficiency  of  instruction. 

Records.  The  supply  department  is  developing  a  system 
of  records  that  will  operate  shortly  as  a  permanent  inventory. 
The  records  are  so  organized  as  to  give  charges  against  schools, 
and  the  purchasing  records  charge  by  item  all  supplies  issued 
from  the  department.  The  former  records  enable  the  Clerk  to 
check  the  quantity  of  supplies  sent  to  any  building  against  the 
amount  ordered  for  the  year,  the  amount  previously  used,  and  the 
amount  used  by  other  buildings.  In  some  cases  this  record  has 
been  used  to  cut  down  needless  ordering  by  principals.  From 
the  office  end  of  the  line,  economy  and  efficient  administration  of 
supplies  seem  to  be  evident.  Annual  per  capita  costs  for  sup- 
plies are  figured  by  buildings  by  the  Business  Manager's  statis- 
tical clerk  and  reported  in  the  Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of 
Education.  These  computations  show  that  there  is  excellent  uni- 
formity in  the  per  pupil  cost  of  supplies  in  the  different  schools 
of  the  city.  With  the  exception  of  the  special  schools  and  the 
very  smallest  schools,  the  cost  is  practically  constant  in  all  build- 
ings. With  the  high-school  costs  there  is  close  agreement  be- 
tween Central  and  Junior  High  School,  but  a  much  larger  cost 
at  the  Union  School. 

The  Supply  Clerk  maintains  two  offices,  one  at  the  main  busi- 
ness office  in  the  City  Hall  and  one  at  the  central  supply  room 
in  the  North  Division  school,  three  blocks  away.  At  the  main 
office  the  clerk  has  an  office  assistant  who  takes  care  of  all  office 
routine,  posts  the  purchasing  records,  attends  to  the  correspond- 
ence, filing,  etc.  Her  work  the  past  three  months  has  consisted 
largely  in  bringing  the  records  up  to  date.  That  will  be  ac- 
complished very  soon.  With  the  records  brought  up  to  date, 
much  of  the  time  of  this  assistant  can  be  put  on  other  matters. 
If  the  Supply  Clerk  maintained  his  office  at  the  storeroom,  the 
time  of  this  clerk  could  well  be  put  in  doing  some  of  the  clerical 
work  that  now  has  to  be  done  by  the  routing  clerk  or  driver.  It 
is  difficult  to  see  the  need  for  the  Supply  Clerk's  maintaining  two 


BUSINESS  MANAGEMENT  469 

offices,  especially  when  he  is  away  from  his  staff  a  major  part 
of  the  time. 

The  Storage  of  Supplies.  All  regular  supplies  of  the  Board 
are  stored  at  the  central  storeroom  in  the  basement  of  the  North 
Division  School.  This  is  well  located  in  a  central  position  in  the 
city  and  accessible  from  all  points.  The  department  long  ago 
has  outgrown  its  quarters,  however.  The  Board  should  take 
steps  to  give  the  supply  department  more  room.  Materials  are 
piled  in  such  fashion  as  to  mean  a  considerable  waste  of  time 
and  energy  in  handling.  At  the  central  storeroom  the  supply 
clerk  has  three  assistants.  During  the  ten  weeks  following  July 
first,  there  is  a  rush  season  of  inventorying,  stock-receiving,  and 
order-filling.  During  this  time  the  department  is  especially 
hampered  in  its  lack  of  facilities.  Aside  from  the  lack  of  room, 
the  department  seems  to  be  caring  for  the  supplies  of  the  school 
system  in  an  efficient  manner.  The  Board  has  been  considering 
plans  for  a  central  administration  building  which  would  include 
the  supply  department.  It  is  clear  that  expansion  of  present 
quarters  will  be  an  imperative  necessity  soon. 

The  present  organization  under  the  Supply  Clerk  is  such  that 
he  is  forced  to  take  a  hand  in  the  manipulation  of  the  stock  only 
during  the  summer  months.  In  thus  being  relieved  of  the  routine 
clerical  and  manual  duties  of  his  office  he  is  given  time  to  improve 
ways  and  means  for  giving  the  schools  better  service.  This  is 
a  step  in  the  right  direction. 

The  Handling  of  Supplies  in  the  Buildings.  In  this  connec- 
tion, it  seems  evident  that  there  ought  to  be  more  frequent  in- 
spection of  the  handling  of  supplies  in  the  buildings.  At  the 
present  time  there  is  none.  Principals  store  their  supplies  in  un- 
locked closets  and  in  many  cases  both  teachers  and  pupils  have 
access  to  the  supplies  at  all  times.  Several  instances  were  found 
in  which  the  supplies  for  the  building  were  stored  in  an  unlocked 
closet  opening  off  the  main  hall.  This  is  a  method  of  procedure 
that  ought  to  be  corrected.  The  Supply  Clerk  could  well  spend 
some  of  his  time  putting  in  and  keeping  up  a  better  system  of 
handling  supplies  in  the  buildings. 

The  Distribution  of  Supplies.  The  department  has  worked 
out  a  system  of  regular  monthly  distribution  of  supplies  through- 
out the  city.  A  regular  schedule  for  each  section  of  the  system 
has  been  planned,  and  supplies  delivered  in  accordance.  Teach- 
ers and  principals  know  exactly  when  to  order  and  exactly  when 
supplies  will  be  delivered  to  them.  For  delivery,  the  department' 
has  an  automobile  on  which  a  small  box  has  been  built.  This 
is  inadequate  for  the  present  size  of  deliveries.  The  proposition 
to  get  a  half-ton  truck  for  the  use  of  both  supply  and  repair  de- 


470          SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

partments  would  seem  to  be  a  step  in  the  right  direction.  The 
only  question  involved  is  one  of  administering  to  the  needs  of 
both  departments.  During  the  summer  months  the  truck  is  badly 
needed  by  the  repair  gangs  and  in  the  winter  by  the  supply  de- 
partment. It  would  seem  that  it  might  be  possible  to  use  it  ef- 
ficiently in  both  departments. 

The  supply  department  has  worked  out  an  efficient 
scheme  of  ordering  and  receipting  for  supplies.  Orders  are  made 
in  triplicate  and  no  goods  are  delivered  without  written  receipt. 
The  department  has  been  able  to  safeguard  the  handling  of  sup- 
plies in  this  way. 

Complete  inspection  of  this  department  leads  to  the  con- 
clusion that  its  work  is  being  done  efficiently  and  with  consid- 
erable regard  for  both  business  and  instructional  conditions. 
It  is  believed  the  supply  clerk  in  the  future  should  spend  more 
time  on  the  latter  phases  of  his  work.  The  department  needs 
more  room  and  it  needs  to  develop  the  inspection  of  the  handling 
of  supplies  in  the  building. 

The  Purchase  and  Inspection  of  Fuel 

The  Board  of  Education  spends  nearly  twenty-five  thousand 
dollars  a  year  for  fuel.  To  heat  its  buildings  the  past  year  it 
used  about  seven  thousand  tons  of  coal.  It  is  possible  to  so 
standardize  the  specifications,  method  of  purchasing,  inspecting 
and  accepting  of  coal  as  to  result  in  a  high  degree  of  economy. 

It  is  pertinent  to  note  that  there  is  no  real  inspection  on 
more  than  half  of  the  coal  delivered.  With  the  close  of  Septem- 
ber the  coal  inspector  goes  back  to  his  position  as  janitor  of  the 
East  Leonard  School  and  the  only  inspection  given  is  the  formal 
receipting  for  delivery  done  by  the  janitor.  In  a  few  cases  it  was 
found  that  janitors  take  samples  of  the  coal  delivered  to  their 
bins  and  turn  these  in  to  the  Business  Manager  who  has  them 
prepared  for  the  test  made  by  city  engineers.  These  samples, 
however,  are  not  properly  taken  according  to  the  descriptions  of 
the  janitors  themselves.  During  the  seven  months  October  to 
April  1915-16,  nearly  3,900  tons  of  coal  were  delivered,  over  2,000 
tons  in  February  and  March  alone.  On  this  coal  there  was  prac- 
tically no  real, inspection. 

In  1914-15  the  coal  received  was  of  a  very  low  grade.  It  was 
so  low  in  fact  that  the  coal  inspector  rejected  sixteen  carloads  at 
one  time.  The  coal  annually  delivered  to  the  buildings  was  so 
poor  as  to  cause  great  inconvenience  and  a  very  large  amount  of 
waste  in  the  heating  of  buildings.  This  instance  is  referred  to  as 
an  indication  of  what  may  well  happen  when  the  quality  of  coal 


BUSINESS  MANAGEMENT  471 

delivered  is  not  inspected.  At  the  same  time,  shortage  in  weight 
is  not  being  checked  up.  To  an  outside  observer  the  situation 
seems  to  demand  yearly  inspection  of  coal.  A  table  of  deliveries 
by  months  for  1915-16  taken  from  the  records  of  the  business 
office  shows  that  the  average  delivery  from  October  to  April  was 
500  tons.  This  means  fairly  constant  hauling  of  coal  throughout 
the  winter  and  a  need  for  nearly  daily  inspection. 

III.     School  Accounting  in  Grand  Rapids. 

1.  The  Organization  of  the  Staff.    The  accounting  and  cleri- 
cal work  of  the  public  schools  is  done  under  the  immediate  sup- 
ervision of  the  Business  Manager.    To  assist  him  he  has  a  regular 
bookkeeper  and  an  assistant  to  the  bookkeeper,  an  assistant  to 
the  secretary  and  a  statistical  clerk.     The  assistant  to  the  sec- 
retary takes  care  of  the  general  correspondence,  drawing  up  of 
contracts,  drawing  up  of  bond  abstracts,  and   the   handling  of 
miscellaneous  duties.    Much  the  same  could  be  said  of  the  book- 
keeper.   A  long  list  of  the  functions  of  these  two  positions  reveal 
something  of  a  lack  of  clear  definition  of  duties.     For  example, 
the  bookkeeper  spends  considerable  time  "waiting"  on  the  public, 
teachers  and  janitors,  (this  is  the  legitimate  work  of  an  assistant 
office  clerk),  writing  teachers'  contracts  and  collecting  institute 
fees,  purchasing  streetcar  tickets,  stamps,  etc.,  reading  proof  and 
checking   proceedings,   monthly    statements,   etc.,   making   copy 
of  ledger  "funds"  for  monthly  statement  of  funds  to  be  printed  in 
the  ledger,  etc.,  etc.    Would  it  not  be  possible  to  define  the  duties 
of  the  four  positions  in  this  office  subordinate  to  the  Business 
Manager  with  a  view  to  more  unified  definition  and  classification 
of  duties?     It  would  seem  as  though  the  bookkeeper  could  well 
give  his  time  to  the  accounting  and  bookkeeping  phases  of  the 
work,  leaving  many  of  his  miscellaneous  and  clerical  duties  to  an 
assistant  or  office  clerk. 

2.  The  General  Method  of  Accounting.    The  scheme  of  ac- 
counting employed  in  the  business  office  may  be  described  as  a 
receipts   and   disbursements    system.      The   journal   and    ledger 
bookkeeping  is  relatively   simple   and   easy   to   manipulate.      It 
results  in  specific  statements  of  the  standing  of  various  funds  at 
any  time,  and  from  the  standpoint  of  commercial  accounting  it 
reports   adequately   all   financial   transactions.     The   moneys  of 
the  Board  of  Education  are  at  the  present  time  classified  in  33 
principal  funds  (which  have  grown  out  of  the  original  26  funds.) 
The  system  was  planned  originally  so  that  the  funds  1  to  9  were 
primarily  educational  funds  and  the  funds  10  and  above  were 
business  funds.    The  scheme  as  it  stands  today  is  not  well  adapt- 
ed to  the  needs  of  the  educational  department.     The  funds  can 


472  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

hardly  be  said  to  be  organized  so  as  to  result  in  specific  state- 
ments of  the  cost  of  educational  service. 

Let  us  take  an  example.  Fund  3  is  a  fund  for  teachers'  sal- 
aries. Together  with  3a  it  will  total  between  $500,000  and  $600,- 
000  a  year.  The  present  scheme  throws  together  the  salaries  of 
all  teachers,  principals  and  supervisors.  The  accounting  methods 
thus  do  not  result  in  definite  costs  expressed  in  pertinent  edu- 
cational units.  The  scheme  is  not  built  to  result  in  such  state- 
ments. The  educational  officers  are  interested  in  a  financial  ac- 
counting system  which  will  enable  them  to  evaluate  the  costs  of 
educational  service,  administration,  instruction,  supervision, 
operation  of  the  plant,  maintenance  of  the  plant  and  outlay  for 
permanent  improvements  in  terms  of  kinds  of  schools  and  of 
buildings.  As  at  present  organized  the  business  department  can- 
not co-operate  with  them  in  this  without  much  "digging  out" 
of  detailed  data. 

At  the  same  time  that  fund  3  is  not  analyzed,  fund  4  (sup- 
plies) is  subdivided  into  34  subordinate  funds,  which  are  re- 
ported in  monthly  statements  of  the  Board  co-ordinate  with 
fund  3.  In  the  same  way  funds  5  and  6  are  divided  into  17  small- 
er funds.  (It  is  true  of  course,  that  the  necessity  for  reporting  to 
the  officers  in  charge  of  those  specialized  funds  will  necessitate 
keeping  them  itemized  in  the  ledger.)  First,  then,  we  would 
criticize  the  general  organization  of  the  funds  and  the  method 
of  analyzing  them. 

Second,  the  general  accounting  is  not  planned  in  accordance 
with  the  best  school  accounting  standards  available,  namely  those 
adopted  by  the  National  Association  of  School  Accounting  Of- 
ficers and  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education.  These  stand- 
ards have  now  been  adopted  in  many  cities  in  the  United  States. 
The  only  reason  given  for  not  adopting  the  standard  form  of 
organizing  financial  facts  in  Grand  Rapids  is  that  the  latter  has 
not  been  absolutely  standardized.  It  should  be  said,  however, 
that  relatively  little  change  has  been  made  in  the  form  since  its 
adoption  five  years  ago:  Each  year  the  Business  Manager  reports 
to  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  the  financial 
facts  concerning  the  Grand  Rapids  school  system,  on  this  same 
standard  form.  To  do  so  means  the  expenditure  of  considerable 
time  in  reclassifying  from  the  records  the  information  desired. 

It  appears  to  the  Survey  Staff  that  in  the  reorganization 
of  funds  there  should  be  adopted  the  grouping  agreed  upon  by 
the  combined  associations,  in  terms  of  educational  service  and 
kinds  of  schools.  This  would  result  in  a  specific  statement  of  the 
cost  of  administration,  supervision,  instruction,  outlay,  each  in 
terms  of  day  elementary  schools,  day  high  schools,  junior  college, 


BUSINESS  MANAGEMENT  473 

evening  schools,  special  schools,  etc.  Grand  Rapids  is  opening 
up  many  special  types  of  education.  Its  accounting  methods 
should  take  cognizance  of  them.  The  proposed  changes  do  not 
mean  a  wholesale  revision  of  accounting  methods.  They  mean 
simply  a  closer  analysis  of  certain  funds,  3  for  example,  and  the 
combining  of  others  and  regrouping  of  all  so  as  to  give  a  more 
adequate  educational  classification  of  them. 

In  this  connection  we  note  the  present  methods  of  differen- 
tiating elementary  educational  costs  between  the  fourth  and  fifth 
grades,  resulting  in  grammar  school  costs  and  primary  school 
costs.  It  cannot  be  found  that  this  has  any  real  educational  sig- 
nificance. Salary  schedules  take  no  account  of  such  a  distinction 
in  the  lower  grades  and  in  the  housing  and  organization  of  pu- 
pils the  administrative  officers  pay  no  attention  to  such  a  scheme 
of  grouping.  Why  should  the  financial  reporting  be  done  in 
terms  of  it? 

On  the  other  hand  the  system  is  showing  a  very  real  dif- 
ferentiation between  the  lower  six  grades,  the  intermediate 
seventh,  eighth  and  ninth  and  the  upper  three  grades.  The  city 
seems  to  be  committing  itself  to  a  six-six  organization  of  the 
twelve  grades  of  the  public  schools.  If  the  business  department 
is  to  co-operate  fully  with  the  educational  department,  might 
not  its  accounting  methods  be  differentiated  on  some  such  basis 
as  this?  If  any  reorganization  of  "funds"  is  to  come,  this  im- 
portant factor  might  well  be  taken  into  consideration.  It  was  in- 
dicated above  that  the  city  now  has  six  different  ways  of  admin- 
istering intermediate  education.  This  condition  will  naturally 
hamper  any  complete  readjustment  of  accounting  on  the  six-six 
plan  for  some  time  to  come.  In  the  meantime,  thorough  ways 
and  means  for  studying  the  cost  situation  should  be  worked  out 
by  the  business  department. 

Methods  of  Recording  School  Facts  in  Grand  Rapids :    The  Bu- 
reau of  Census  and  Statistics. 

The  business  and  educational  departments  of  the  school  sys- 
tem have  been  run  for  ten  years  as  two  co-ordinate  departments. 
It  is  a  fair  question  whether  the  facilities  of  the  business  depart- 
ment have  been  directed  specifically  at  contributing  to  the  opera- 
tion of  the  other.  In  the  matter  of  the  recording  of  school  facts, 
there  is  quite  evident  a  lack  of  unification  of  methods.  The  sup- 
erintendent of  schools  immediately  directs  a  general  attendance 
department  which  takes  care  of  truancy  work  in  the  buildings  and 
visiting  work  in  the  homes.  For  its  efficient  operation  necessary 
systems  of  records  of  attendance  have  been  developed.  At  the 
same  time,  recently  there  has  been  created  a  bureau  of  census 


474  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

and  statistics.  This  has  been  placed  under  the  direction  of  the 
secretary  of  the  Board  (the  Business  Manager  in  this  case.)  This 
scheme  of  organization  is  explained  by  the  educational  depart- 
ment on  the  grounds  that  the  state  law  requires  the  secretary  of 
the  Board  to  take  the  census.  The  law  states  that  the  census 
shall  be  taken  by  "the  secretary  of  the  board  of  education  or 
other  reputable  and  capable  person  or  persons  employed  by  the 
board."  There  is  therefore  no  legal  requirement  that  the  office 
of  the  Business  Manager  take  the  census  and  administer  the  sta- 
tistical department.  The  director  of  the  bureau  of  the  census  and 
statistics  has  recently  worked  out  a  very  excellent  plan  for  a 
continuing  census  which  is  to  be  commended.  The  work  of  this 
census  will  contribute  information  that  should  be  placed  imme- 
diately at  the  service  of  the  attendance  department. 

It  is  a  striking  fact  that  an  enumeration  of  the  list  of  acti- 
vities directed  by  the  bureau  of  census  and  statistics  shows  that 
with  one  exception  these  activities  are  primarily  "educational" 
and  not  business  or  financial  in  nature,  e.  g.,  enrollment  and 
attendance  records  of  the  superintendent ;  the  class  records  of 
teachers ;  school  extension  records ;  the  activities  of  the  vocation 
bureau,  etc.,  etc. 

The  work  that  is  being  done  under  the  director  of  the  bureau 
of  census  and  statistics  is  closely  similar  to  some  of  the  work 
being  done  under  the  head  of  the  attendance  department.  In 
fact,  we  have  found  evidence  of  duplication  of  records  that  should 
be  eliminated.  The  activities  of  the  two  departments  are  such 
that  they  should  be  co-ordinated  into  one  under  one  superior  ex- 
ecutive officer.  Since  the  outcomes  of  the  operation  of  this  gen- 
eral census,  attendance,  and  statistical  department  are  primarily 
"educational"  and  not  "business",  the  department  should  be  plac- 
ed under  the  immediate  supervision  of  the  superintendent  of 
schools  or  his  assistant.  The  city  may  look  forward  in  a  few 
years  to  the  necessity  of  having  a  special  assistant  superintendent 
over  all  such  activities — census,  attendance,  statistics  and  school 
research. 

There  is  still  other  pertinent  evidence  to  show  that  it  is  dif- 
ficult to  administer  a  school  system  efficiently  under  a  dual  organ- 
ization such  as  exists  in  Grand  Rapids.  Problems  of  educational 
research,  such  as  studies  of  non-promotion,  elimination  and  re- 
tardation pertain  most  directly  to  the  work  of  instruction.  For 
this  reason,  the  head  of  the  instructional  department  ought  to 
have  at  his  command  all  available  research  data.  Studies  of 
non-promotion  in  the  grades  recently  made  by  the  director  of  the 
bureau  of  census  and  statistics  have  been  reported  to  the  business 
manager  who  can  make  no  educational  or  business  use  of  them. 


BUSINESS  MANAGEMENT  .  475 

At  the  same  time,  the  results  of  the  research  have  not  been  re- 
ported to  the  superintendent  of  schools  and  made  available  for 
the  improvement  of  school  practice. 

Treated  from  various  points  of  view,  it  seems  quite  clear 
that  the  present  methods  of  recording  school  facts  should  be  com- 
pletely reorganized.  It  is  suggested  that  one  department  of  cen- 
sus, attendance,  statistics  and  research  be  organized,  reporting 
immediately  to  the  superintendent  of  schools  or  to  the  assistant 
superintendent  of  schools. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

ADMINISTRATIVE 
ORGANIZATION 


The  Board  of  Education  of  Grand  Rapids  faces,  as  does 
every  other  board  of  education  in  large  American  cities,  grave 
problems  of  organization  which  grow  out  of  the  complexity  of 
the  school  system.  A  city  of  the  size  of  Grand  Rapids  has  a 
number  of  different  kinds  of  districts.  It  is,  of  course,  theoreti- 
cally desirable  that  each  of  these  districts  should  have  equal 
school  facilities.  This  would  mean  that  all  of  the  buildings 
ought  to  be  equally  well  equipped  and  equally  well  built.  It 
would  mean  that  the  corps  of  teachers  in  each  building  ought  to 
be  of  the  same  quality.  It  would  mean  that  the  course  of  study 
ought  to  be  equally  advanced  and  equally  well  organized. 

The  superficial  view  of  this  problem  is  that  all  of  the  differ- 
ent districts  ought  to  be  treated,  in  all  the  respects  enumerated, 
exactly  alike.  For  example,-  in  the  matter  of  the  course  of  study, 
equal  facilities  for  the  different  districts  will  be  interpreted  by 
some  to  mean  exactly  the  same  course  of  study.  A  more  careful 
consideration  of  the  problem,  however,  will  convince  anyone 
that  the  needs  of  the  different  districts  are  in  many  cases 
radically  different.  In  some  districts,  most  of  the  children  are 
going  to  high  school,  while  in  others  the  great  majority  are 
likely  to  enter  the  industries  directly  after  leaving  the  elementary 
school.  The  Board  of  Education  and  the  school  officers  have, 
accordingly,  the  very  delicate  problem  of  providing  school  facili- 
ties that  shall  be  equally  well  arranged  but  not  identical  in  kind. 

Furthermore,  it  is  almost  impossible  in  a  city  system  of  the 
size  of  Grand  Rapids  to  keep  the  building  equipments  uniform. 
School  buildings  erected  twenty  years  ago  are  lacking  in  many 
of  the  improvements  which  appear  in  the  newer  school  buildings. 
It  is  quite  impossible  to  discard  a  building  because  it  is  falling 
somewhat  behind  in  its  equipment.  The  best  efforts  must  be 
made  to  keep  the  building  in  suitable  working  condition.  This 


ADMINISTRATIVE  ORGANIZATION        m  477 

means  in  a  system  with  forty  school  buildings  a  necessary  dif- 
ference in  material  equipment. 

Finally,  the  distribution  of  the  teachers  is  not  a  matter  over 
which  the  Board  has  instant  and  absolute  control.  The  services 
of  a  teacher  who  has  faithfully  worked  in  the  system  for  a 
number  of  years  are  in  many  respects  much  more  significant  to 
the  schools  than  any  contribution  which  can  be  made  by  a 
younger  teacher.  Conversely,  the  younger  teachers  are  coming 
in  with  recent  training  and  with  an  equipment  in  subject-matter 
and  in  knowledge  of  the  science  of  education  which  many  of  the 
teachers  of  an  earlier  generation  never  had  an  opportunity  to 
acquire.  There  is  no  such  thing  as  a  teaching  staff  in  a  large 
city  which  is  uniform  throughout  in  character. 

When  considerations  of  this  type  are  frankly  faced,  it  will  be 
recognized  that  the  school  problem  in  Grand  Rapids  is  enormous- 
ly complex.  This  complexity  will  be  all  the  more  vividly  real- 
ized when  one  looks  into  the  details  of  the  administrative  ma- 
chinery which  are  necessary  in  a  great  school  system.  For  ex- 
ample, let  one  consider  the  work  of  a  school  superintendent.  In 
a  city  of  twenty  thousand  inhabitants,  it  is  easily  possible  for  a 
school  superintendent  to  do  a  large  part  of  the  supervising  of 
the  schools  through  personal  inspection.  He  can  in  the  course 
of  a  year  spend  a  great  deal  of  time  in  each  of  the  classrooms  in 
the  schools.  He  can  become  intimately  acquainted  with  the 
administration  of  each  building  by  constant  personal  presence  in 
each  building.  Not  only  so  but  he  can  oversee  most  of  the  pur- 
chasing of  supples  for  the  system  and  he  can  keep  in  mind  the 
supplies  furnished  to  each  building. 

By  the  time  the  population  has  doubled,  the  difficulties  in 
the  way  of  personal  supervision  by  a  single  superintendent  be- 
come  much  greater.  If  he  is  more  interested  in  methods  of 
teaching  than  in  business  matters,  it  is  probable  that  he  will 
relinguish  first  of  all  his  relation  to  the  routine  of  securing  sup- 
plies. If,  on  the  other  hand,  he  has  a  taste  for  business,  it  is 
probable  that  he  will  absorb  himself  in  matters  of  material 
equipment  and  will  leave  the  classroom  work  to  take  care  of  it- 
self or  at  least  to  be  supervised  by  the  different  principals.  In 
either  case,  the  disintegration  of  the  school  system  will  threaten 
unless  some  way  can  be  discovered  of  mastering  the  complexities 
of  the  growing  situation. 

Anyone  who  has  had  the  patience  to  read  up  to  this  point 
the  details  presented  in  this  report  will  realize  that  the  general 
statements  just  made  are  supported  by  the  actual  diversities 
within  the  school  system  of  Grand  Rapids.  These  diversities 
have  been  kept  in  check  by  good  organization,  but  they  are 


478  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHKiAN 

present  in  impressive  degree  in  spite  of  this  good  organization. 
Grand  Rapids  can  not  look  for  a  solution  of  these  problems 
in  any  legislation  or  in  any  form  of  organization  which  has  been 
provided  by  the  state.  The  fact  is  that  state  school  legislation 
Has  been  formulated  in  very  large  measure  to  fit  small  towns  and 
rural  districts.  There  is  a  clear  legal  recognition  of  this  fact  in 
the  habit  exhibited  by  legislatures  of  granting  independent  school 
charters  to  large  cities. 

Grand  Rapids  must  work  out  a  form  of  organization  which 
will  fit  its  own  needs.  There  is  under  the  state  law  great 
latitude  for  such  organization.  Let  us  turn  to  several  examples 
which  will  illustrate  at  once  the  kind  of  problem  which  faces 
the  Board  of  Education  of  Grand  Rapids  and  the  type  of  solution 
which  is  to  be  advocated. 

The  school  Census  Bureau  furnishes  an  excellent  illustration 
of  the  difficulty  which  the  Grand  Rapids  Board  of  Education 
comes  upon  in  defining  and  unifying  the  functions  of  its  officers. 
Under  the  laws  of  the  state  of  Michigan  the  school  board  is 
obliged  to  take  a  school  census.    The  primary  reason  for  taking 
this  census  is  that  the  state  supplies  certain  funds  to  the  school 
system  of  Grand  Rapids  on  the  basis  of  the  number  of  children 
in  the  city.    The  law  also  indicates  that  this  work  shall  be  done 
by  the  boa-rd  through  its  secretary.     In  Grand  Rapids  the  secre- 
tary of  the  board  is  the  business  manager  of  the  board.     The 
.  Bureau  of  Census  was  therefore  organized  as  a  part  of  the  busi- 
^  ness  office.     The  returns  which  are  secured  by  the  Bureau  of 
•  Census  would  be  of  great  value  to  the  attendance  officers  and 
1  would  also  be  of  much  greater  value  than  now  if  connected  di- 
rectly with  the  scholarship  records  which  are  kept  by  the  schools 
I  on  the  cumulative  card  records  made  out  for  each  child.    Under 
'  the  present  somewhat  inadequate  definition  of  the  relations  be- 
tween various  officers  the  connection  between  the  Census  Bureau 
and  the  instructional  department  is  not  complete  or  satisfactory. 
The  Bureau  undertakes  investigations  which  are  related  primari- 
ly to  instruction  and  the  attendance  department  docs  not  use  the 
census  results. 

Another  illustration  can  be  drawn  from  the  experience  <>!" 
|the  schools  in  administering  supplies.  There  is  a  central  supply 
station  which  is  evidently  well  managed.  Supplies  are  distribu- 
ted to  the  school  buildings  where  they  come  into  the  hands  of 
the  school  principals.  Some  of  these  principals  are  careful  and 
efficient  in  business  methods  and  handle  the  supplies  as  they 
should  be  handled.  Other  principals  do  not  handle  these  matters 
as  they  should.  The  question  now  arises  as  to  how  the  princi- 
pals are  to  be  trained  in  handling  supplies  and  what  system 


ADMINISTRATIVE  ORGANIZATION  479 

shall  be  adopted  to  insure  proper  inventory  and  suitable  economy 
from  the  point  of  view  of  the  system  as  a  whole.  Business 
methods  have  grown  complex  in  this  case  and  the  proper  busi- 
ness supervision  of  each  building  in  a  great  system  comes  to 
be  a  difficult  task.  The  ordinary  supervision  of  principals  em- 
phasizes almost  exclusively  their  instructional  functions.  Their 
conduct  of  business  affairs  is  not  under  as  strict  scrutiny.  Yet 
the  systematic  supervision  of  the  business  organization  of  each 
building  is  important  because  of  the  difference  between  the 
different  buildings  in  the  personnel  of  the  staff,  because  of 
differences  in  the  accommodations  which  exist  in  the  buildings 
themselves  for  housing  supplies  and  because  of  the  different 
kinds  of  children  who  make  use  of  these  supplies  in  the  different 
districts.  The  setting  up  of  a  central  supply  office  does  not 
solve  this  problem. 

Another  illustration  can  be  borrowed  from  the  chapters  onf 
tests.  Again  and  again  it  has  been  shown  in  these  chapters  that 
the  different  buildings  of  the  school  system  show  different  de- 
grees of  efficiency  in  the  different  subjects  of  instruction.  Some 
of  these  differences  in  achievement  are  inevitable  because  of  the 
differences  between  the  children  who  are  in  attendance  in  the 
various  schools.  The  development  of  an  administrative  machine 
that  shall  distinguish  between  the  differences  that  are  inevitable 
and  those  that  are  due  to  variations  in  methods  of  teaching  is  a 
problem  which  has  become  acute  in  recent  years  not  only  in 
Grand  Rapids  but  in  every  large  school  system  in  the  United 
States. 

A  final  example  may  be  drawn  from  the  experience  of  thch 
Board  of  Education  itself.  Much  of  the  work  of  this  Board  is 
done  by  two  committees,  one  of  which  has  charge  of  instructional 
matters,  the  other  of  which  has  charge  of  finances.  In  carrying 
on  the  routine  of  school  management  these  two  committees 
found  themselves  drifting  apart  with  the  danger  before  them  of 
becoming  virtually  two  Boards.  Fortunately  the  danger  was 
seen  in  time  to  remedy  it.  The  expedient  was  adopted  of  having 
the  chairman  of  one  committee  sit  as  a  regular  member  of  the 
other  committee.  If,  as  indicated  by  this  experience,  there  is 
danger  of  decentralization  within  the  Board,  how  much  greater 
must  be  that  danger  when  the  large  body  of  teachers,  principals, 
and  other  school  officers  is  involved. 

The  fact  that  the  business  activities  of  the  Board  and  its 
activities  in  considering  plans  of  instruction  are  not  fully  co-- 
ordinated appears  in  the  annual  report.  This  report  is  made 
up  of  two  distinct  and  little  related  subdivisions. 

What   can  be  done  to  meet  these  difficulties  and  hold  to- 


480  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

gether  all  of  the  activities  of  the  school  system?     The  answer 

involves  two  seemingly  contradictory  principles.     First,  the  sys- 

\tern  must  be  administered  in  an  impersonal  way.     This  means 

'that  plans  for  future  action  must  be  based  on  evidence  drawn 

'from  a  study  of  the  needs  of  the  schools.     This  means  further 

that  there  must  be  a  candid  measurement  of  results.    It  is  more 

important  that  the  schools  should  face  their  practices  in  regard 

to  non-promotion  than  that  there  should  be  condemnation   or 

commendation  by  any  individual.     In  short,  the  schools  must  be 

unified  by  the  facts.    The  kind  of  unity  which  will  grow  out  of  a 

study  of  results  is  the  only  kind  that  will  be  permanent. 

^-  The  second  principle  which  seems  at  first  hearing  to  conflict 
»with  the  foregoing  statement  is  that  the  school  system  should 
have  as&in^le  responsible  head  in  charge  of  all  of  the  activities 
of  the  schools: — This  dues  nirrniean  that  the  single  head^should 
be  clothed  with  arbitrary  powers.  Just  because  the  unity  of  the 
school  system  can  be  secured  only  through  a  study  of  the  facts 
about  the  system,  this  central  executive  must  organize  his  offigg 
in  such  a  way  as  to  collect  and  interpret  thelacts  about  the~sys- 
tem.  He  must  make  his  plans  and  recommendations  with  a 
clear  view  to  the  first  principle  that  the  system  can  be  unified 
only  by  a  study  of  results.  The  single  central  executive  is 
needed  in  order  that  the  impersonal  facts  may  be  focused  on 
every  school  problem.  It  is  just  as  essential  in  a  school  system 
that  there  should  be  a  single  central  unifying  executive  as  it  is 
essential  in  a  great  business  corporation  or  in  government. 

The  argument  is  not  for  the  creation  of  one-man  control. 
The  argument  is  not  for  the  creation  of  dictatorial  powers.  It 
has  been  shown  all  through  this  report  that  the  factors  entering 
into  the  school  system  are  manifold.  They  must  all  be  recog- 
nized and  evaluated.  They  must  be  co-ordinated  and  balanced. 
The  Board  of  Education  must  unify  and  promote  a  great  and 
complex  body  of  interests.  How  can  it  do  this?  Only  through 
a  consideration  of  plans  and  policies  which  have  been  brought 
together  from  all  sources  by  a  single  central  officer. 

Let  us  make  this  concrete.  At  present  the  business  j)ffice  is 
independent  of  the  superintendent's  office.  ThTe  two  offices 
should  be  ^mit^4  At  present  the  superintendent  presents  plans 
and  asks~the  Board  to  sanction  them  without,  in  some  cases, 
giving  a  detailed  financial  plan  as  a  basis  of  action.  JThe  super- 
intendent should  be  xequiredby  the  Board  to  submit  for  every 
project  which  he  suggests  a  lull  and  workable  financial  plan. 
The  Board  should  not  allow  even  its  own  members  to  inaugurate 
plans  without  an  investigation  of  all  of  th£  facts  involved.  In  the 
location  of  a  building  or  in  making  a  change  in  the  course  of 


ADMINISTRATIVE  ORGANIZATION  481 

study,  the  Board  should  first  seek  the  facts.  It  should  direct 
its  executive,  the  superintendent,  to  bring  together  the  facts 
which  should  guide  action.  Or  take  another  example,  if  the 
Board  should  decide  to  enlarge  the  Junior  College,  it  ought  to 
require  of  its  executive  a^£ulLplan  showing  the  character  of  the 
institution  projected,  the  financial  outlay  involved  and  the  evi- 
derices~that  the  organization  isjieeded  andThe  evidence  frorn_the 
experiences  of  oiTTFrHtle^-JiiaFTEe7  projec±-can  h£~made  to  suc- 
ceed. If  extra^help  is  required  in  the  supenritejidjeiirls_office  to 
prepare  such  a  report,  the  Board  could  weir~arford  to  supply  it. 
The  reason  for  some  of  trie  blind  experimenting  that  has  gone 
on  in  school  systems  up  to  this  time  is  that  there  has  been  no 
provision  for  administration  planning  and  reporting  on  a  large 
scale. 

The  plan  which  has  been  sketched  in  the  last  paragraph's 
not,  as  some  may  object,  a  plan  for  the  increase  of  the  superin- 
tendent's power  to  the  point  where  he  becomes  the  autocrat  of 
the  system.  It  is  a  plan  for  the  control  of  everybody,  Board, 
superintendent,  and  teachers  alike,  by  facts  and*  clearly  formu- 
lated policies.  It  is  unfortunately  true  that  school  systems  have 
been  conducted  all  over  this  country  in  a  vague  experimental 
way.  Even  teachers  have  been  in  doubt  as  to  the  kinds  of  re- 
sults they  have  been  achieving  and  the  kind  of  plans  which  they 
should  make.  It  is  little  wonder  that  business  men  connected 
with  boards  of  education  have  tended  to  magnify  purely  financial 
considerations.  The  amount  of  money  spent  could  be  ascer- 
tained with  a  good  deal  of  precision.  The  educational  results  se- 
cured have  been  unknown.  The  future  of  the  teaching  activities 
has  seemed  to  Board  members  somewhat  vague.  The  future  on 
the  financial  side  has,  of  necessity,  had  to  be  clear.  The  result 
is  that  Boards  have  naturally  come  to  emphasize  financial  con- 
siderations and  financial  organizations.  The  time  has  come 
when  the  educational  side  of  school  work  ought  to  be  cleared  up. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  schools  are  organized  for  the  pur- 
pose of  teaching  children.  Schools  have  to  spend  money  but 
they  were  not  organized  as  financial  institutions.  It  seems  ab- 
surd to  think  of  the  spending  division  of  the  system  as  inde- 
pendent of  the  teaching  division. 

Put  the  matter  in  terms  of  the  findings  of  this  report.  Grand 
Rapids  has  an  excellent  school  system.  It  is  comparatively  com- 
pact in  its  organization,  it  has  introduced  some  most  intelligent 
modifications  in  school  organization  before  these  have  become 
common  in  school  systems  the  country  over,  it  has  a  well-trained 
corps  of  teachers,  it  is  achieving  good  results.  These  state- 
ments are  in  danger  of  attracting  less  attention  than  will  the 


482  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

one  statement  that  the  school  system  of  Grand  Rapids  is  ex- 
pensive. The  criticisms  made  in  this  report  where  attention  is 
drawn  to  the  necessity  of  improving  instruction  in  certain  parti- 
culars are  in  danger  of  exaggeration  because  communities  have 
not  been  trained  in  the  careful  study  of  educational  results  and 
do  not  know  how  to  deal  with  a  report  that  is  critical  in  any 
detail. 

The  Board  of  Education  of  Grand  Rapids  has  an  opportuni- 
ty to  contribute  to  the  inauguration  of  a  new  era  in  school 
administration.  Let  the  Board  continue  the  policy  which  it  has 
adopted  in  organizing  a  survey.  Let  it  demand  of  its  officers  a 
clear  statement  at  frequent  intervals  of  the  results  being  at- 
tained in  the  schools.  Let  the  Board  insist  that  the  statements 
of  results  be  compared  in  detail  with  the  statement  of  costs.  Let 
tfie  Board  insist  that  the  future  be  planned  in  detail  and  with  the 
greatest  explicitness.  Let  the  Board  make  it  its  chief  duty  to 
pass  on  plans  and  keep  before  the  people  the  results  of  its 
studies.  Let  every  officer  be  subject  to  the  demand  that  results 
be  proved  and  plans  be  worked  out  in  detail.  There  will  in  such 
a  situation  be  no  danger  of  unfair  domination  by  anyone  through 
his  mere  personal  influence  and  there  will  be  no  danger  that 
finances  will  suffer. 

It  has  been  suggested  in  an  earlier  paragraph  of  this  re- 
jport  that  the  school  board  increase  its  supervisory  staff.  There 
ought  to  be  in  a  city  of  the  size  of  Grand  Rapids  some  officer 
who  should  rank  as  an  assistant  superintendent  and  who  would 
have  as  one  of  his  important  functions  the_s^u^_pi^dministra3 
tive  and  supervisory  matters.  Such  an  officer  would  in  the  long 
run  be  a  source  ot  direct  xconomvto  the  Board.  His  work,  sup- 
plementing that  of  the  presenTotticer^W^uTcI^roniote  efficiency 
in  all  educational  lines.  The  appointment  of  such  an  officer 
wouTcTBalance  to  solne  extent  the  increase  which  has  been  made 
in  recent  years  in  the  cost  of  financial  administration-.  The  fact 
is  that  in  most  American  cities,  as  in  Grand  Rapids,  the  adminis- 
trative machinery  has  expanded  more  slowly  than  the  other 
phaseTI^T^Cnotjl  organization. 

Coupled  with  this  increase  in  the  agencies  for  educational 
%work  should  go  a  very  definite  movement  for  an  improvement 
Jill  trai^vnorj^  prin^pa]^  nf  f|-|e  elementary  srhoo^s.     The  obser- 
vatrorrS^ofthe  Survey  Staff  have  convinced  all  who  have  worked 
in  the  schools  that  there  is  at  present  too  great  devotion  on  the 
part  of  principals  to__rjetty  routine.    In  many  cases  there  is  a  dis- 
tinct lack  of  knowledge  of  administrative  matters  and  a  lack  of 
initiative   in   the   study   of   school   methods   of   a   modern   type. 
Controlling  a   school  building  is  a   large  public   responsibility. 


ADMINISTRATIVE  ORGANIZATION 


483 


This  responsibility  can  not  be  met  unless  the  officers  in  charge 
of  buildings  knowhow__jtQ-4cDt  restrlts.  Some  principals  resist 
any  comparative  -SfuHies  because  they-know  that  their  own  or- 
ganization is  vague.  The  city  has  a  right  to  demand  of  princi- 
pals, as  of  its  major  officers,  a  clear,  frequent  statement  of  re- 
sults and  of  plans  for  the  future.  Every  building  should  be  fre- 
quently checked  up  in  financial  as  well  as  educational  matters. 
The  principals  should  have  large  authority  and  should  be  held 
vstrjct^^cjcpuntahl£-  It  is  recommended  that  principals  be  re- 
quired to  report  tojhe  superintendent  at  frequent  intervals,  defi- 
nite evidences^^^ro^r^s^Jn^JlieiiL^chopls.  It  is  recommended 
that  they 


required_to_show  that-they  arc  keeping  abreast  of 
current  educationaT  mo_vements_and  tha/M:hey  jre^taking  definite 
steps  to  improve  the  teaching  corps  in  their  buildings. 


SUMMARY  OF  THE  REPORT  OF  THE 

SURVEY  OF  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 

OF  GRAND  RAPIDS 

Methods  of  the   Survey 


During  the  winter  and  spring  of  1916  twelve  educational 
specialists  made  a  survey  of  the  schools  of  Grand  Rapids.  They 
made  observations  in  the  classrooms  of  both  the  elementary  and 
the  high  schools.  They  also  went  over  the  records  of  the  school 
system  and  compiled  tables  showing  the  organization  of  the 
teaching  staff,  the  number  of  children  in  the  different  grades 
who  are  promoted  and  not  promoted,  the  number  of  students  in 
the  various  high-school  classes  who  secure  high  grades,  or  fail  in 
their  work,  and  other  matters  of  the  same  type.  They  examined 
the  financial  records  of  the  Board  for  the  purpose  of  finding  out 
how  expenditures  are  distributed  over  the  different  activities  of 
the  school  system.  All  these  matters  have  been  reported  on  in 
detail  in  the  various  sections  of  the  survey  report. 

After  collecting  facts  of  the  type  indicated  in  the  last  para- 
graph, comparisons  were  worked  out  to  show  how  Grand  Rapids 
stands  in  relation  to  other  school  systems  in  matters  of  instruc- 
tion and  expenditure.  Furthermore,  the  various  school  buildings 
within  the  Grand  Rapids  system  itself  were  compared  with  each 
other  so  that  it  is  possible  on  the  basis  of  the  facts  which  have 
been  brought  together  to  pass  judgment  on  the  relative  effi- 
ciency of  the  various  schools  and  of  the  system  as  a  whole. 

Survey  Staff 

The  following  men  constituted  the  staff  which  carried  on  the 
survey.  The  particular  duties  which  they  performed  are  also 
indicated  in  connection  with  their  names.  Professor  Charles  S. 
Berry,  University  of  Michigan,  prepared  the  report  on  special 
classes.  Professor  John  F.  Bobbitt,  University  of  Chicago,  pre- 
pared the  report  on  the  elementary  school  curriculum  and  on 
the  school  buildings.  Dr.  George  S.  Counts,  Delaware  Univer- 


SUMMARY  OF  THE  SURVEY  485 

sity,  prepared  the  report  on  arithmetic.  Mr.  John  B.  Cragun, 
University  of  Chicago,  prepared  the  report  on  music.  Professor 
Calvin  O.  Davis,  University  of  Michigan,  prepared  the  report  on 
high  schools.  Superintendent  John  H.  Francis,  Los  Angeles 
Public  Schools,  reported  briefly  as  indicated  in  the  discussion 
of  junior  high  schools  on  the  work  of  that  part  of  the  system. 
Professor  Frank  N.  Freeman,  University  of  Chicago,  prepared 
the  report  on  writing..  Dr.  William  S.  Gray,  University  of  Chi- 
cago, prepared  the  report  on  reading*  .Dr.  Benjamin  F.  Pittenger, 
University  of  Texas,  prepared  a  large  part  of  the  statistical  ma- 
terial used  in  the  chapters  on  teachers  and  promotions.  Dr. 
Harold  O.  Rugg,  University  of  Chicago,  prepared  the  report  on 
school  finance.  Mr.  Matthew  H.  Willing,  University  of  Chi- 
cago, prepared  the  report  on  composition.  'Professor  Charles  H. 
Judd,  University  of  Chicago,  organized  the  survey  staff  and 
edited  the  results,  contributing  the  portions  of  the  report  not 
otherwise  indicated. 

Introduction — General  Characteristics  of  the  City 

The  survey  report  has  a  brief  introduction  which  reviews 
the  census  tables  and  other  information  describing  the  city  of 
Grand  Rapids  as  a  manufacturing  and  economic  center.  Refer- 
ence is  here  made  to  the  fact  that  there  are  a  number  of  parochiaj^ 
schools  in  the  city  which  are  not  included  in  the  survey  of  the 
public  school  system.  Reference  is  also  made  to  the  fact  that 
there  are  other  educational  institutions  in  the  city  which  contri- 
bute to  the  life  of  the  people. 

It  would  be  very  advantageous  if  the  municipality  as  a 
whole  would  survey  all  of  its  social  resources  as  the  Board  of 
Education  has  surveyed  the  schools.  There  are  many  forms 
of  educational  activity  which  apply  chiefly  to  the  adults  in  the 
community,  such  as  libraries,  churches  and  places  of  amuse- 
ment. These  ought  to  be  understood  and  the  need  for  their  en- 
largement is  quite  as  great  as  the  need  for  the  enlargement  of 
school  facilities.  As  is  shown  in  the  report  on  the  schools, 
Grand  Rapids  is  a  city  altogether  competent  to  provide  its  peo- 
ple with  the  best  intellectual  and  social  opportunities.  These 
should  be  developed  not  only  for  the  children  in  the  schools  but 
also  for  all  classes  of  people  at  all  stages  of  development. 

Chapter  I— Teachers 

The  first  chapter  of  the  report  deals  with  the  teaching  staff 
in  the  schools.  Their  training  and  tenure  of  office  are  exhibited 
from  the  records  of  the  Board  of  Education.  The  high-school 


486  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

teachers  are  in  the  main  college  graduates,  especially  those  who 
teach  academic  subjects,  thus  conforming  to  the  standards  of 
the  University  of  Michigan  and  of  the  North  Central  Associa- 
tion. There  are  a  number  of  older  teachers  in  the  high-school 
faculties  who  are  not  college  graduates.  A  sharp  distinction 
appears  between  the  training  and  experience  of  teachers  of 
academic  subjects  and  teachers  of  special  subjects  such  as  man- 
ual training,  drawing,  etc.  These  teachers  of  special  subjects 
are  very  much  less  experienced  and  have  spent  much  less  time 
in  their  training  than  the  teachers  of  the  traditional  subjects. 
Many  of  them  are  not  college  graduates.  As  a  result  the  newer 
subjects  are  put  at  a  distinct  disadvantage  in  school  organiza- 
tion. It  is  only  fair  to  say  that  exactly  the  same  situation  exists 
throughout  the  United  States.  If,  however,  these  newer  subjects 
are  to  be  organized  as  well  as  the  traditional  subjects,  they 
ought  to  be  taken  care  of  by  teachers  of  the  greatest  possible 
training  and  maturity.  The  school  authorities  ought  to  continue 
the  policy  so  far  as  possible  of  aiming  at  the  same  level  of  train- 
ing for  teachers  of  both  academic  and  non-academic  subjects. 

Among  the  elementary  school  teachers  it  is  the  teachers  in 
the  middle  grades  who  have  the  least  preparation  and  experience. 
This  again  is  in  conformity  with  the  practice  of  schools  through- 
out the  United  States.  There  are  some  dangers  in  this  distribu- 
tion of  elementary  teachers.  It  is  always  necessary  for  a  school 
system  to  assimilate  its  younger  and  less  experienced  teachers 
by  putting  them  somewhere,  but  the  distribution  ought  prob- 
ably to  be  made  somewhat  more  uniformally  over  all  the  grades. 
The  training  of  the  elementary  school  teachers  is  very  good. 
Most  of  them  are  graduates  of  normal  schools  and  some  of  them 
are  college  graduates. 

The  kindergarten  teachers  are  very  largely  trained  in  Grand 
Rapids  and  have  only  that  experience  which  they  have  acquired 
in  the  city.  The  report  recommends  that  the  public  schools  as- 
sume in  a  much  larger  degree  responsibility  for  the  training  of 
kindergartners. 

In  point  of  tenure,  attention  is  called  to  the  fact  that  the 
teachers  of  Grand  Rapids  remain  relatively  long  in  their  posi- 
tions, which  shows  that  the  organization  of  the  system  in  this 
city  is  stable  in  its  relations  with  the  teachers. 

The  training  and  experience  of  the  principals  of  the  ele- 
mentary schools  are  made  subjects  of  special  comment.  Many 
of  these  principals  have  been  in  the  service  of  the  Grand  Rapids 
system  for  a  long  period  of  time.  The  record  of  their  training, 
in  many  cases,  does  not  show  any  evidence  of  their  having 
specialized  on  the  problems  of  school  administration.  Indeed, 


SUMMARY  OF  THE  SURVEY  487 

many  of  them  are  unable  to  report  any  special  studies  during  the 
recent  years  of  their  connection  with  the  school  system.  This  is 
a  matter  of  grave  importance  to  the  school  system.  School 
supervision  is  not  the  same  as  class  instruction  and  anyone  who 
undertakes  to  supervise  a  school  building  ought  to  make  a  spe- 
cial study  of  the  problems  of  organization.  The  principal  ought 
to  keep  up  with  current  educational  literature,  and  this  can  be 
done  only  when  the  principal  is  vigorous  in  study  and  attendance 
on  the  many  educational  institutions  which  are  now  offering 
special  training  of  this  kind.  The  practice  in  American  schools 
has  been  to  advance  to  the  principalship  the  senior  teacher  in  the 
school  building.  This  practice  ought  to  be  discontinued.  Spe- 
cial attention  ought  to  be  given  to  the  kind  of  study  which  will 
qualify  one  to  make  tests  of  the  work  done -in  the  school  and 
supervise  the  teachers  so  as  to  set  up  and  maintain  the  highest 
standards.  For  example,  as  will  be  shown  in  the  next  chapter 
of  the  report,  the  problem  of  promotions  is  a  special  administra- 
tive problem  depending  on  principles  that  need  a  much  more 
complete  standardization  than  has  been  worked  out  in  the 
Grand  Rapids  schools.  Control  of  promotions  is  one  of  the 
major  duties  of  the  principal  and  where  there  is  any  irregularity 
in  the  standard  of  promotion  the  school  system  ought  to  look 
into  the  efficiency  of  the  principal. 

Chapter  II — Non-Promotions  in  Elementary  Schools 

The  second  chapter  of  the  report  deals  with  non-prorhotions 
and  failures  in  the  elementary  schools.  Non-promotions  are  of 
crucial  importance  in  the  school  system  because  they  show  the 
extent  to  which  the  work  of  the  schools  is  not  successfully  com- 
pleted by  pupils.  Whenever  a  child  fails  the  school  is  confronted 
by  a  serious  problem.  It  used  to  be  the  habit  of  school  authori- 
ties to  assume  that  the  child  was  responsible  for  his  own  failure. 
It  was  assumed  that  the  course  of  study  and  the  methods  of 
instruction  were  fixed  and  that  the  children  must  conform  to  all 
of  the  standards  thus  set  up  in  the  schools.  In  recent  years,  on 
the  other  hand,  it  has  been  recognized  that  the  school  shares  with 
the  pupil  the  responsibility  for  a  failure.  It  is  recognized  that 
the  course  of  study  ought  to  be  modified  so  far  as  possible  to 
meet  the  needs  of  individual  children.  Where  the  course  of 
study  cannot  be  modified  special  classes  can  be  developed  which 
will  take  care  of  the  children  who  are  not  able  to  complete  with 
success  the  ordinary  course.  Grand  Rapids  has  done  a  great 
deal  in  its  efforts  to  provide  special  classes  for  children  who 
fail  in  the  regular  work.  A  separate  report  on  the  classes  for 
defectives  and  retards  is  included  in  the  survey  and  emphasis 


488  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

will  there  be  laid  on  the  fact  that  it  is  a  great  advantage  to  an 
educational  system  to  differentiate  the  pupils  in  such  a  way  as 
to  leave  the  regular  classes  free  to  work  with  children  who  are 
adapted  to  the  course  of  study  and  who  can  in  great  proportion 
succeed  with  the  work  of  that  course. 

The  record  of  non-promotions  shows  that  there  is  a  high 
percentage  of  non-promotions  in  the  first  grade.  This  is  the 
common  experience  of  all  school  systems.  The  children  are 
trying  to  adjust  themselves  in  the  first  grade  to  the  work  of  the 
school.  Many  of  them  find  this  difficult  with  the  result  that 
they  do  not  succeed.  By  the  second  grade  non-promotions  in 
the  Grand  Rapids  schools  are  reduced  to  about  ten  per  cent  of 
the  children.  This  is  a  better  record  than  is  exhibited  in  many 
school  systems.  The  percentage  is,  however,  high,  and  the  teach- 
ers of  Grand  Rapids  ought  to  be  encouraged  to  make  a  careful 
study  of  this  matter  of  non-promotions  and  find  out  its  causes. 
Some  of  the  causes  can  be  discovered  by  making  a  detailed  study 
of  failures  in  particular  subjects.  Such  a  study  was  made  by  the 
survey  and  shows  that  the  failures  in  reading  are  high  in  the 
early  years  of  the  school  but  fall  off  notably  and  steadily  in 
succeeding  grades.  The  failures  in  arithmetic,  on  the  other  hand, 
increase  and  are  at  a  very  high  level  throughout  the  school  year. 
From  the  third  to  the  seventh  grades  the  failures  in  arithmetic 
average  more  than  19  per  cent.  This  is  a  very  high  level  of 
failures  in  a  particular  subject  and  indicates  that  the  work  that 
is  expected  of  children  in  the  grades  is  heavier  than  it  ought 
to  be. 

The  report  also  contains  tables  and  diagrams  showing  the 
failures  in  other  subjects.  Thus  it  is  shown  that  the  failures  in 
the  fifth  and  sixth  grades  in  geography  are  at  a  very  high  level. 

The  situation  with  regard  to  non-promotions  is  relieved  in 
part  by  the  fact  that  the  Grand  Rapids  system  has  a  plan  of  trial 
promotion.  A  great  many  children  who  fail  in  particular  sub- 
jects are  not  held  back  for  the  whole  grade  but  are  allowed  to  go 
forward  for  one  year  on  trial.  This  plan  is  to  be  commended 
because  it  saves  a  great  many  pupils  fcom  non-promotion  who 
would  otherwise  be  held  back  for  a  full  year. 

The  statistics  for  non-promotion  have  been  put  together  in 
the  report  so  as  to  show  that  the  practices  of  different  schools 
are  very  different.  In  the  first  place,  when  one  compares  suc- 
cessive grades  it  appears  within  the  same  school  that  the  prac- 
tices of  different  teachers  differ  widely  so  that  in  two  successive 
grades  the  level  of  non-promotions  is  altogether  different.  In 
some  buildings  the  non-promotions  are  very  high  throughout  all 
of  the  grades  while  in  others  they  are  relatively  low.  These  facts 


SUMMARY  OF  THE  SURVEY  489 

show  that  there  is  great  need  of  standardization  of  the  practices 
of  the  different  schools. 

Observations  and  Tests  in  Elementary  Schools 

Chapters  III  to  VIII  describe  in  detail  investigations  which 
were  made  of  the  results  of  elementary  school  teaching.  These 
results  were  observed  by  members  of  the  survey  staff.  In  addi- 
tion standard  tests  were  used  to  discover  the  ability  of  children 
in  each  of  the  subjects.  The  most  important  subject  in  the  ele- 
mentary school  curriculum  is  reading.  A  good  deal  of  time  and 
attention  was  devoted  both  by  the  survey  staff  and  by  the  prin- 
cipals and  teachers  to  this  subject  with  the  result  which  may  be 
described  as  follows. 

Reading 

This  study  was  carried  on  by  means  of  systematic  tests  in 
oral  reading  and  in  silent  reading,  and  by  me-ans  of  classroom 
observations.  The  tests  were  given  to  4,066  pupils  in  37  schools 
by  the  principals  and  their  assistants.  The  material  used  in  the 
tests  consisted  in  short  selections  which  had  been  used  in  similar 
studies  in  other  cities. 

The  distinction  between  these  two  types  of  reading  is  one  of 
great  importance.  In  earlier  days,  oral  reading  received  special 
emphasis  in  every  class.  At  the  present  time  it  is  emphasized 
chiefly  in  the  lower  grades.  Experience  has  taught  that  this 
type  of  reading  is  very  effective  during  that  period  when  the 
rjupil  is  mastering  the  fundamentals  of  reading.  Even  in  the 
intermediate  and  upper  grades,  a  pupil  is  called  upon  frequently 
to  read  orally.  On  the  other  hand,  a  pupil  soon  learns  to  use 
reading  as  a  means  of  securing  ideas  for  himself  and  he  substi- 
tutes silent  reading  for  oral  reading.  During  the  greater  part  of 
his  school  life  the  progress  of  a  pupil  depends  upon  his  ability 
to  master  the  thought  of  the  printed  page  during  the  periods  of 
silent  study.  Furthermore,  under  most  ordinary  situations  of 
life,  one  reads  silently  for  the  purpose  of  gathering  ideas  and  not 
for  the  purpose  of  oral  exhibition.  With  this  recognition  in 
mind  of  the  very  great  importance  of  silent  reading,  it  was  quite 
clear  that  the  quality  of  instruction  in  reading  in  Grand  Rapids 
should  be  determined  upon  the  basis  of  achievement  both  in  oral 
reading  and  in  silent  reading. 

In  oral  r'eading,  it  was  found  that  pupils  in  Grand  Rapids 
stand  very  high.  As  compared  with  .Cleveland  and  a  number 
of  other  cities  which  had  been  tested  up  to  that  time,  Grand 
Rapids  holds  first  place.  The  classroom  observations  revealed 


490  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

the  fact  that  these  commendable  results  are  due  in  a  large 
measure  to  excellent  methods  which  many  teachers  in  Grand 
Rapids  pursue.  The  tests  showed,  however,  that  schools  vary 
widely  in  their  achievement  in  oral  reading.  It  was,  therefore, 
recommended  in  the  survey  report  that  a  careful  study  be  made 
of  problems  in  teaching  oral  reading  to  the  end  that  the  excel- 
lent methods  now  used  by  the  more  skillful  teachers  may  be  ex- 
plained and  demonstrated. 

The  silent  reading  tests  measured  the  rate  at  which  pupils 
read  silently  and  the  degree  to  which  pupils  understand  what 
they  read.  The  results  of  the  tests  showed  that  Grand  Rapids 
secures  a  relatively  high  level  of  attainment  in  rate  of  silent 
reading.  This  is  a  phase  of  reading,  however,  concerning  which 
teachers  should  not  feel  satisfied  with  their  results  even  though 
they  are  superior  to  other  schools.  Most  schools  are  low  in  rate 
because  there  has  been  no  recognition  of  the  importance  of  rate. 

A  careful  study  of  the  ability  of  the  pupils  of  Grand  Rapids 
to  understand  what  is  read  showed  that  they  are  below  the  aver- 
age for  thirteen  cities  which  have  been  measured  by  similar 
methods.  This  is  a  phase  of  reading  to  which  teachers  of  Grand 
Rapids  should  give  increasing  attention.  The  successful  results 
are  due  to  the  keen  interest  which  teachers  are  taking  in  teach- 
ing reading,  to  the  large  number  of  readers  supplied  to  the 
teachers,  and  to  the  excellent  methods  developed  by  many  of 
the  teachers.  The  points  where  improvements  can  be  made  are 
brought  out  in  the  tests  and  the  methods  of  making  the  im- 
provements are  suggested  by  a  careful  observation  of  the  classes 
which  make  high  records. 

Arithmetic 

The  next  series  of  tests  dealt  with  arithmetic.  For  some 
time  past  the  pupils  in  the  elementary  schools  of  Grand  Rapids 
have  been  using  a  series  of  practice  exercises  in  arithmetic  which 
were  prepared  by  Mr.  S.  A.  Courtis.  The  test  which  was  given 
them  was  an  elaborate  test  going  somewhat  beyond  the  exer- 
cises on  which  they  had  been  practicing  but  covering  in  detail 
all  of  the  work  done  in  the  elementary  grades.  The  test  in 
question  is  a  spiral  test.  The  fundamental  operations  of  addi- 
tion, substraction,  multiplication,  and  division  appear  in  the 
early  sections  of  this  test  in  simple  form.  Through  the  remain- 
ing sections  of  the  test  the  fundamental  operations  appear  in 
more  complex  forms.  The  same  test  is  given  to  all  of  the  children 
in  the  schools  and  the  results  are  tabulated  so  as  to  show  how 
far  children  in  the  different  grades  and  in  the  different  buildings 


SUMMARY  'OF  THE  SURVEY  491 

are  able  to  solve  correctly  examples  in  each  of  the  sections  of 
the  test. 

Full  tables  are  presented  showing  the  success  of  the  differ- 
ent grades  in  this  spiral  test.  Furthermore,  a  comparison  is 
made  between  Grand  Rapids  and  Cleveland,  Ohio,  where  the 
same  test  was  used.  In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  the  pupils 
in  Grand  Rapids  are  somewhat  lower  in  the  earlier  grades  than 
are  the  pupils  in  Cleveland  but  in  the  upper  grades  the  Grand 
Rapids  pupils  succeed  better.  This  would  indicate  that  stress  is 
not  laid  on  the  arithmetical  processes  in  the  early  grades  of  the 
Grand  Rapids  schools  as  much  as  in  Cleveland.  The  final  suc- 
cess of  the  work  seems  to  justify  the  method  of  postponing  em- 
phasis on  these  arithmetical  processes. 

One  table  which  gives  the  general  results  for  all  of  the 
schools  in  the  Grand  Rapids  system  is  especially  interesting  be- 
cause it  shows  a  very  high  degree  of  consistency  in  the  work  of 
the  different  elementary  schools. 

Some  further  analysis  was  made  of  the  standing  of  children 
of  different  ages  with  a  view  to  stimulating  types  of  study  which 
will  lead  to  the  adaptation  of  the  course  to  children  of  different 
degrees  of  ability  and  different  ages.  As  pointed  out  in  an  earl- 
ier section  of  the  report,  the  arithmetic  course  needs  to  be  modi- 
fied in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  failures  in  this  subject  are  ex- 
cessive as  contrasted  with  other  subjects  in  the  course  of  study. 

Penmanship 

The  next  subject  of  instruction  in  which  tests  were  tried 
was  penmanship.  A  few  years  ago  the  Board  of  Education  of 
Grand  Rapids  found  that  the  penmanship  in  the  schools  was 
unsatisfactory.  They  accordingly  introduced  a  new  system  and 
required  each  of  the  teachers  to  acquire  a  higher  degree  of  skill 
and  to  adopt  this  system.  The  results  of  the  test  make  it  clear 
that  the  system  of  handwriting  now  in  use  in  Grand  Rapids  pro- 
duces good  results.  Especially  does  it  produce  a  high  level  of 
speed  throughout  all  of  the  grades.  The  quality  of  handwriting 
in  the  lowest  grades  is  not  as  good  as  the  quality  of  handwriting 
in  many  other  school  systems,  but  under  the  system  which  is 
employed  in  Grand  Rapids  it  is  not  expected  that  emphasis 
will  be  laid  on  form  in  the  early  grades.  The  satisfactory  result 
which  is  obtained  in  the  upper  grades  removes  any  criticism 
that  might  be  directed  against  the  work  of  the  schools. 

Mr.  Freeman  in  making  his  report  on  handwriting  discusses 
at  some  length  the  desirability  of  introducing  in  the  early  grades 
the  amount  of  arm  movement  which  is  now  practiced.  It  is  his 
judgment  that  the  system  ought  to  be  somewhat  modified  in 


492  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

these  early  grades  so  as  to  free  the  little  children  from  the 
necessity  of  the  type  of  movement  which  is  there  required.  The 
study  reveals  further  the  fact  that  the  practices  of  different 
schools  in  the  system  are  very  different  in  the  matter  of  hand- 
writing. This  is  one  of  the  subjects  which  it  is  very  difficult  to 
supervise  unless  one  has  definite  standards  and  constantly  checks 
up  the  results  by  a  series  of  tests.  The  recommendation  is 
therefore  urgently  made  that  in  all  of  the  school  buildings  super- 
vision of  penmanship  be  worked  out  by  means  of  systematic 
tests  frequently  applied  to  the  grades. 

Composition 

A  series  of  tests  were  made  in  composition.  The  children 
were  asked  to  write  on  a  subject  carefully  assigned  and  the  re- 
sults were  compared  by  means  of  a  series  of  children's  compo- 
sitions that  have  been  graded  by  Mr.  Willing  in  equal  steps  so 
as  to  constitute  a  suitable  scale  for  evaluating  the  work  of  the 
children  of  Grand  Rapids.  Here  again  differences  in  the  differ- 
ent schools  were  conspicuous.  In  the  main  the  work  was  found 
to  be  good.  It  was  superior  to  the  results  of  a  similar  test  carried 
on  in  Denver,  Colorado.  Since  the  Denver  school  system  is  a 
very  good  system  it  is  fair  to  infer  from  this  comparison  that 
the  work  in  the  Grand  Rapids  school  system  would  be  superior  if 
compared  with  the  average  school  system  of  the  country. 

Observation  Supplements  Tests 

Testing  composition  is  a  very  fair  way  of  getting  at  the  gen- 
eral intelligence  of  the  children  because  they  are  called  upon  to 
use  a  difficult  medium  of  expression  and  to  use  it  with  a  degree 
of  correctness  and  fluency  which  exhibits  their  power  to  express 
themselves  in  all  matters  in  later  life.  It  is  at  the  same  time 
much  easier  to  test  composition  accurately  than  to  test  the  special 
subjects  such  as  history  and  geography  in  which  the  school  gives 
them  training.  Indeed  the  tests  which  have  been  described  up  to 
this  point  in  the  report  deal  only  with  those  phases  of  school 
work  which  can  be  reduced  to  a  definite  quantitative  basis.  There 
are  other  phases  of  school  work  which  can  be  judged  only  indir- 
ectly by  these  formal  tests.  It  should  be  remembered,  however, 
that  each  one  of  the  members  of  the  survey  staff  who  performed 
tests  had  an  opportunity  through  his  visits  in  the  classrooms  to 
form  a  judgment  of  the  character  of  the  work  in  the  schools. 

The  classes  are  industrious  and  well  organized.  The  teach- 
ers are  for  the  most  part  efficient  and  successful  in  their  work. 
The  school  system  shows  by  the  results  of  the  tests  and  from 


SUMMARY  OF  THE  SURVEY  493 

all  of  the  observations  a  high  type  of  organization  and  a  high 
level  of  achievement. 

Music 

Turning  from  the  regular  subjects  of  school  work  to  one  of 
the  special  subjects,  an  investigation  was  made  of  the  course  in 
music.  Grand  Rapids  has  emphasized  a  number  of.  the  newer 
subjects  which  have  been  introduced  in  the  course  of  study  be- 
cause of  the  general  training  which  the  pupils  acquire  from  these 
subjects.  Music  is  such  an  addtional  subject.  The  work  that  is 
commonly  offered  in  American  schools  in  music  is  not  as  well 
standardized  as  the  courses  which  are  offered  in  the  traditional 
subjects.  It  is  difficult,  therefore,  to  give  any  definite  compari- 
son which  will  show  the  success  of  the  work  in  music  in  Grand 
Rapids. 

Mr.  Cragun,  who  observed  the  work  in  music,  passes  a  very 
favorable  judgment  on  all  that  he  saw.  He  finds  that  the  work 
in  Grand  Rapids  is  carefully  systematized  so.  that  the  children 
who  have  difficulty  with  music  are  taken  care  of  in  the  early 
grades  and  the  chief  source  of  failure  in  school  music  is  thus 
eliminated.  He  finds  also  that  the  educational  aspects  of  musical 
instruction  have  been  carefully  worked  out.  The  children  know 
how  to  pay  attention  to  musical  intervals  and  how  to  recognize 
the  rhythms  which  are  part  of  their  musical  training. 

This  favorable  judgment  of  music  is  in  a  measure  confirmed 
by  certain  tests  which  Mr.  Cragun  tried  on  the  children.  He  has 
some  material  from  St.  Louis  and  the  Elementary  School  of  the 
University  of  Chicago,  and  this  material  all  tends  to  show  that 
the  work  of  Grand  Rapids  is  of  a  high  grade  and  successful  in  its 
results.  Mr.  Cragun's  conclusion  with  regard  to  the  music  in- 
struction in  Grand  Rapids  is  especially  significant  in  view  of  the 
fact  that  Grand  Rapids  invests  each  year  a  good  deal  of  money  in 
special  training.  It  is  distinctly  the  view  of  the  Grand  Rapids 
administration  that  this  type  of  training  is  socially  important 
and  of  great  individual  significance.  One  of  the  reasons  why  the 
school  system  of  Grand  Rapids  is  expansive  is  that  courses  of  this 
kind  are  introduced. 

Other  New  Subjects. 

We  may  assume  that  some  of  the  other  newer  types  of  work 
that  are  less  conventional  than  reading  and  arithmetic  are  also 
carried  on  in  a  successful  way.  There  are  no  standards  which 
make  it  possible  to  determine  the  degree  of  excellence  of  the 
work  in  drawing,  but  a  number  of  the  members  of  the  survey 


494  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

staff  in  the  course  of  their  observations  made  favorable  reports 
on  the  work  in  drawing  and  also  the  courses  in  physical  training. 

Course  of  Instruction  in  the  Elementary  Schools.* 

The  examination  and  discussion  of  the  wTork  of  the  element- 
ary schools  in  connection  with  the  survey  proved  a  pleasant  task 
because  of  the  fact  that  so  much  good  work  is  going  on  within 
the  city.  The  professional  people  are  in  a  high  degree  alive  to 
the  nature  of  current  educational  problems.  They  have  been 
and  are  industriously  and  conscientiously  grappling  with  those 
problems ;  and  like  the  progressive  school  people  throughout  the 
country,  as  they  adapt  and  adjust  the  work  year  after  year,  they 
are  solving  the  various  problems.  The  best  ideas  already  to  be 
found  in  the  work  of  the  city  in  connection  with  the  teaching  of 
each  of  the  subjects,  where  these  subjects  are  taught  at  their 
best,  cover  about  everything  that  we  can  recommend  in  the  re- 
port of  the  survey.  The  primary  duty  of  the  survey  therefore 
turned  out  to  be  that  of  selecting  what  is  currently  considered  the 
best  types  of  work  as  these  are  already  developed  by  thoughtful 
and  progressive  teachers  and  supervisors  in  the  city,  and  of  rec- 
ommending that  these  best  types  of  work  found  here  and  there 
through  the  city,  be  made  general  in  all  of  the  schools. 

In  reading  the  instructional  recommendations  of  the  survey, 
school  people  and  community  should  keep  in  mind  one  important 
fact  and  one  equally  important  probability  which  amounts  to 
practical  certainty:  (1)  The  character  of  the  educational  work 
found  in  the  city  is  now  far  in  advance  of  what  it  was  twenty 
years  ago :  (2)  The  character  of  the  work  now  found  in  the  city 
probably  falls  equally  far  short  in  its  quality  of  what  it  will  be 
in  another  twenty  years.  Great  pains  have  been  made  in 
the  past.  Equally  great  gains  are  yet  to  be  made,  innumerable 
beginnings  of  which  are  to  be  observed  everywhere  throughout 
the  work  of  the  city.  As  one  points  out  improvements  which 
need  to  be  introduced,  therefore,  it  is  not  in  any  spirit  of  fault- 
finding criticism.  One  is  merely  co-operating  in  the  development 
of  a  constructive  program.  One  is  simply  attempting  to  reen- 
force  the  arguments  and  efforts  of  those  now  working  within 
the  system  who  are  attempting  to  secure  these  very  same  im- 
provements. 

The  reading  work  of  the  schools,  to  take  one  of  the  more 
important  subjects  first,  is  developing  along  good  lines.  In  the 
buildings  where  it  is  best  done,  whether  in  primary  or  grammar 
grades,  the  children  cover  a  large  amount  of  reading  material  dur- 
ing the  school  year.  Reading  needs  to  be  increasingly  done  for 

*This  section  of  the  summary   was  prepared  by   Professor  Bobbitt. 


SUMMARY  OF  THE  SURVEY  495 

the  thought,  the  mental  experience,  and  the  general  widening 
of  one's  intellectual  and  social  vision.  Covering  so  much  ground, 
the  children  are  trained  to  rapid  reading.  The  conditions  demand 
also  training  in  thoughful  silent  reading.  The  schools  are  sup- 
plied with  a  considerable  quantity  of  supplementary  books  in 
sets.  The  city  is,  however,  singularly  fortunate  in  its  library  sit- 
uation. It  is  doubtful  if  any  other  city  in  the  country  has  done 
so  much  to  place  at  the  disposal  of  every  school  such  easy  and 
complete  access  to  a  great  city  library.  The  degree  to  which 
both  schools  and  community  arc  taking  advantage  of  the  various 
types  of  library  facilities  is  one  of  the  signs  of  incalculable  prom- 
ise. 

To  the  subject  of  history,  Grand  Rapids  is  giving  only  about 
half  as  much  time  as  the  average  of  fifty  representative  American 
cities.  Practically  all  of  this  is  placed  in  the  last  two  grades  of  the 
elementary  school.  Since  about  thirty  per  cent  of  the  growing 
generation  in  Grand  Rapids  drops  out  of  school  before  complet- 
ing the  work  of  the  last  two  grammar  grades,  it  follows  that  this 
large  per  cent  of  the  population  of  the  city  does  not  have  that 
fundamental  training  in  American  citizenship  which  comes  from 
a  study  of  American  history.  This  deficiency  in  historical  train- 
ing is  serious.  It  is  in  part  made  up  through  the  supplementary 
and  library  reading.  While  this  is  excellent,  it  seems  that  it 
should  be  taken  care  of  more  consciously.  In  a  democracy,  civic 
problems  requiring  a  good  historical  background  for  judgment 
are  very  numerous,  and  are  growing  still  more  numerous. 

Civic  instruction  is  mostly  a  mere  addendum  to  history. 
It  is,  however,  of  immeasurable  social  value.  The  work  now 
done  within  the  city  is  of  only  a  rudimentary  type.  No  subject 
is  more  in  need  of  conscious  direction  and  development. 

Where  the  geography  work  in  the  city  is  at  its  best,  the 
schools  are  well  supplied  with  geographical  reading  materials, 
maps,  models,  pictures,  etc. ;  the  teachers  have  learned  the  value 
of  the  geographic  experience  that  is  to  be  had  in  connection  with 
these  concrete  modes  of  presentation ;  and  they  have  learned  the 
superior  value  of  problem-geography  as  compared  with  the  old 
textbook  fact-learning  type  of  teaching.  The  good  type  of 
work  referred  to,  found  in  certain  of  the  buildings,  needs  to  be 
made  general  throughout  the  system.  This  cannot  be  done,  how- 
ever, until  the  various  buildings  are  supplied  with  a  larger  quan- 
tity and -usually  a  better  quality  of  geographical  reading  mater- 
ials. While  maps,  pictures,  charts,  etc.,  are  indispensable,  good 
reading  materials  must  really  constitute  the  basis  of  teaching  the 
subject. 

In  arithmetic  the  schools  labor  under  the  serious  handicap  of 


496  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

having  a  textbook  which  they  do  not  generally  use.  Major  at- 
tention is  given  to  skill,  accuracy  and  speed  in  computation.  Too 
much  time,  however,  of  both  teachers  and  children  is  consumed 
in  finding  and  copying  problems  out  of  books  other  than  the  text- 
book. On  the  one  hand,  the  city  is  in  need  of  a  text  that  is 
adapted  to  the  type  of  work  that  is  being  done ;  and  on  the  other 
hand,  supplementary  printed  helps  are  also  needed.  These  are 
in  part  already  being  supplied  by  the  board  in  the  shape  of  the 
Courtis  practice  material. 

When  one  inquires  as  to  the  grammar  and  composition,  one 
early  discovers  the  influential  presence  of  "The  News  Junior." 
By  furnishing  a  wide  reading  public,  this  little  paper  vitalizes 
the  written  expression  of  hundreds  and  even  thousands  of  the 
children.  The  plan  is  highly  commendable  and  the  schools  in 
general  seem  to  be  taking  a  full  advantage  of  their  opportunity. 

Without  going  into  further  detail,  it  can  be  said  of  the  other 
subjects  that  in  all  of  them,  somewhere  within  the  school  system, 
one  finds  superior  work  going  on  which  points  the  lines  of  devel- 
opment to  be  followed  in  making  this  type  of  work  general 
throughout  the  schools  of  the  city. 

Special  Classes  and  Schools 

In  addition  to  these  reports  on  the  regular  routine  of  ele- 
mentary instruction,  Professor  Berry  of  the  University  of  Michi- 
gan prepared  a  special  report  on  the  various  classes  which  are 
organized  to  take  care  of  children  who  are  defective  or  backward 
in  their  school  work.  This  report  opens  with  the  comment  that 
Grand  Rapids  has  more  children  of  this  type  in  special  classes 
than  most  other  cities.  This  does  not  mean  that  Grand  Rapids 
has  more  children  who  are  defective  but  that  the  machinery  for 
separating  them  from  the  rest  of  the  pupils  is  more  completely 
worked  out.  In  fact,  Grand  Rapids  has  been  more  energetic 
than  most  cities  in  selecting  these  difficult  cases  and  giving  them 
the  treatment  which  takes  the  form  of  separate  classes  and  separ- 
ate schools. 

There  are  a  number  of  types  of  special  classes  and  schools 
for  backward  children  of  various  types.  Mr.  Berry  commends  the 
system  as  successful  in  many  of  its  aspects.  He  believes  that  it 
would  be  better  to  segregate  these  children  earlier  than  they  are 
now  segregated.  In  making  this  recommendation  it  should  be 
clearly  recognized  that  a  grave  social  problem  is  involved  in  sep- 
arating any  children  from  the  regular  classes.  Parents  usually 
object  to  the  removal  of  their  children  from  the  regular  grades, 
and  supervisors  are  anxious  lest  they  should  be  guilty  of  mistakes 
in  picking  out  children  who  will  later  prove  to  be  normal.  The 


SUMMARY  OF  THE  SURVEY  497 

community  ought  to  be  educated  to  the  point  of  recognizing  the 
difficulty  which  the  school  here  encounters  and  the  necessity  of 
providing  whatever  facilities  are  necessary  for  the  proper  care 
of  these  children. 

Society  has  a  problem  in  defective  children  which  is  not 
merely  an  educational  problem  but  a  general  social  problem.  If 
these  children  are  not  taken  care  of,  they  become  dependent  and 
very  expensive  in  their  later  years.  Not  only  so,  but  society  suf- 
fers from  their  maladjustment  to  the  social  order  in  many  other 
ways. 

At  present  the  equipment  for  these  special  classes,  while 
relatively  good,  is  in  some  cases  not  as  complete  as  it  should  be. 
Grand  Rapids  is  therefore  to  be  commended  for  what  has  been 
done  on  the  material  side  along  the  lines  of  providing  for  these 
children,  but  is  urged  to  go  much  further  in  elaborating  the  fac- 
ilities for  treating  these  children. 

Mr.  Berry  has  performed  a  number  of  tests  to  check  up  the 
work  done  by  the  regular  officers  who  have  these  children  in 
charge  and  finds  that  the  supervision  of  these  schools  is  in  sat- 
isfactory condition.  The  devotion  of  teachers  of  special  classes 
is  to  be  commended  and  the  general  organization  of  this  work  is 
excellent.  / 

High  Schools. 

A  full  report  on  the  high  schools  is  rendered  by  Mr.  C.  O. 
Davis  of  the  University  of  Michigan.  The  report  on  the  high 
schools  can  be  divided  into  three  sections.  First,  there  is  a  sec- 
tion dealing  with  the  junior  high  schools;  second,  one  dealing 
with  the  senior  high  schools  or  the  regular  four-year  schools ; 
and  finally,  one  dealing  with  the  junior  college  organized  at  the 
Central  High  School. 

Junior  High  Schools. 

The  junior  high  school  represents  an  effort  to  create  a  closer 
connection  between  the  elementary  school  and  the  high  school. 
In  most  cities  the  break  between  the  eighth  grade  and  the  first 
year  of  the  high  school  is  so  great  that  children  have  difficulty 
when  they  get  into  the  high  school  in  adjusting  themselves  to 
the  methods  of  work  and  to  the  requirements  of  their  instructors. 
Grand  Rapids  was  one  of  the  first  cities  in  the  United  States  to 
recognize  the  desirability  of  reorganizing  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grades  so  as  to  avoid  so  far  as  possible  this  break  between  the 
elementary  school  and  the  high  school.  The  junior  high-school 
movement  has  come  in  recent  years  to  be  one  of  the  most  sig- 


498  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

nificant  movements  in  American  education.  Grand  Rapids  pre- 
ceded other  cities  in  organizing  this  kind  of  a  school. 

There  are  three  different  types  of  junior  high  schools  in 
Grand  Rapids.  The  institution  which  bears  the  name  "Junior 
High  School"  is  a  separate  institution  in  which  the  upper  grades 
are  at  work  by  themselves.  The  South  High  School  has  a  six- 
year  course  of  study  wThich  includes  both  the  junior  high  school 
and  the  work  of  the  senior  high  school.  The  Union  High  School 
relates  the  work  of  the, junior  high  school  somewhat  more  closely 
to  that  of  a  fully  organized  elementary  school. 

In  all  of  these  institutions  the  course  of  study  differs  some- 
what from  the  course  of  study  ordinarily  administered  in  the 
seventh  and  eighth  grades.  Opportunities  are  given  for  special- 
ization on  the  part  of  those  children  who  are  going  to  go  on  in 
the  languages.  Other  children  who  wish  to  specialize  in  the 
manual  arts  are  given  an  opportunity  to  take  courses  of  that  type. 
The  junior  high  school  thus  gives  an  opportunity  to  differentiate 
somewhat  the  courses  of  the  different  pupils. 

It  is  the  contention  of  the  report  that  this  differentiation  and 
modification  of  the  courses  ought  to  go  forward  even  further  than 
they  have  gone  in  Grand  Rapids.  Where  the  junior  high  school 
reaches  its  fullest  possible  organization  the  children  in  the 
seventh  and  eighth  grades  are  allowed  an  opportunity  to  do  some 
of  the  science  work  and  some  of  the  work  in  mathematics  which 
has  traditionally  been  regarded  as  high-school  work.  Without 
attempting  to  go  into  the  details  which  are  taken  up  in  the  report 
it  may  be  said  that  the  report  urges  a  continuation  and  extension 
of  the  junior  high-school  organization. 

Senior  High  Schools. 

The  senior  high  schools  are  undertaking  a  number  of  new 
lines  of  activity.  Thus,  the  sixty-minute  period  has  been  sub- 
stituted for  the  forty-minute  period.  The  various  subjects  in 
which  instruction  is  given  are  being  reorganized  with  respect  to 
their  material  so  as  to  make  this  material  more  appropriate  to 
the  students  in  the  courses.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that  Mr. 
Davis  finds  the  work  of  the  senior  high  schools  well  organized 
and  conducted  in  a  thoroughly  progressive  spirit. 

There  is  a  difference  between  the  opportunities  offered  in  the 
various  high  schools.  The  Central  High  School  remains  the  best 
equipped  and  most  completely  organized  high  school  of  the  city, 
Sooner  or  later  the  facilities  in  the  other  schools  ought  to  be 
raised  to  the  level  of  the  facilities  offered  in  the  Central  High 
School. 

In  dealing  with  the  organization  of  the  work  in  the  various 


SUMMARY  OF  THE  SURVEY  499 

classes  one  finds  that  the  different  teachers  evidently  have  stand- 
ards that  differ  widely  from  each  other.  This  appears  in  the  fact 
that  the  grades  given  to  the  students  are  very  different  and  the 
number  of  failures  in  the  different  courses  vary  from  each  other 
by  wide  margins.  There  is  less  uniformity  and  systematization 
of  the  high  school  than  there  is  of  the  elementary  courses. 

These  comments  furnish  an  opporunity  to  suggest  the  desir- 
ability of  a  more  definite  effort  on  the  part  of  the  high  schools  to 
standardize  their  work.  This  does  not  mean  that  the  work  needs 
to  be  made  absolutely  uniform,  but  in  all  of  those  common  char- 
acteristics of  the  high  school  there  ought  to  be  a  clear  conscious- 
ness of  the  necessity  of  offering  an  equal  opportunity  to  all  of  the 
children  and  of  administering  these  equal  opportunities  on  the 
same  general  principles. 

Junior  College 

The  junior  college  constitutes  one  of  the  grave  problems  of 
school  organization  in  Grand  Rapids.  It  was  undertaken  in  re- 
sponse to  a  natural  demand  on  the  part  of  the  young  people  of 
the  city  who  expect  to  go  to  college  for  an  opportunity  to  carry 
on  the  work  of  the  early  years  of  their  college  course  as  economi- 
cally as  they  can  and  as  near  their  own  homes  as  possible.  Mr. 
Davis  presents  in  very  clear  terms  the  arguments  in  favor  of 
junior  college  work  in  the  larger  cities  of  the  country.  Wherever 
the  community  is  large  enough  so  that  there  are  young  people 
who  can  be  more  economically  and  advantageously  trained  at 
home  it  is  in  the  interests  of  public  economy  that  provision  be 
made  for  them.  These  young  people  would  go  to  the  University  of 
Michigan  if  they  did  not  have  an  opportunity  in  Grand  Rapids  it- 
self to  attend  a  junior  college,  and  the  total  expense  to  the  com- 
munity of  their  higher  education  would  be  much  greater  than  it 
will  be  if  they  are  given  junior  college  privileges  in  connection 
with  the  high-school  course.  On  the  other  hand,  it  appears  that 
the  junior  college  is  not  at  the  present  time  in  'a  flourishing  con- 
dition. It  is  very  little  attended  and  it  appears  to  be  diminishing 
rather  than  increasing  in  registration.  It  is  Mr.  Davis'  view  that 
some  encouragement  of  the  organization  would  make  possible  a 
larger  registration.  At  all  events,  the  problem  is  clearly  stated  in 
Mr.  Davis'  report. 

The  solution  of  the  problem  involves  in  some  measure  the  at- 
titude of  the  University  of  Michigan.  It  is  the  attitude  of  the 
University  that  the  courses  which  receive  college  credit  shall 
contain  only  students  who  are  candidates  for  college  credit,  that 
is,  there  shall  be  no  mixture  of  college  students  and  high-school 
students.  It  is  also  the  attitude  of  the  University  that  every 


500  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

credit  which  is  given  must  be  approved  in  detail  by  the  depart- 
ments at  the  University  of  Michigan. 

It  is  pointed  out  in  a  preliminary  statement  made  by  Mr. 
Judd  that  these  limitations  from  the  University  of  Michigan 
destroy  entirely  the  spirit  of  continuity  between  the  high  school 
and  the  junior  college  which  characterizes  at  every  other  point 
the  school  system  of  Grand  Rapids.  It  is  quite  impossible  to  or- 
ganize a  junior  college  economically  unless  the  small  elective 
classes  which  are  open  to  advanced  students  in  the  high  school 
can  be  utilized  for  college  purposes.  The  solution  which  is  here 
suggested  is  one  which  would  perhaps  encounter  opposition  from 
the  state  university,  but  the  report  urges  that  an  experimental 
attitude  be  assumed  toward  the  situation  and  that  a  genuine 
effort  be  made  to  bring  about  an  adjustment  which  shall  in- 
crease the  registration  and  shall  make  economical  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  junior  college.  One  conclusion  certainly  can  be  reach- 
ed. If  the  junior  college  cannot  be  improved,  it  ought  to  be 
abandoned. 

Professor  Bobbitt  visited  the  various  elementary  schools  of 
the  city.  His  report  on  his  observations  is  as  follows : 


Buildings  and  Equipment 

In  any  consideration  of  the  school  buildings,  one  must  divide 
them  into  two  classes:  (1)  those  that  represent  the  building 
policies  of  former  boards  of  education ;  (2)  the  newer  buildings 
which  represent  the  present  building  policy  of  the  board. 

The  newer  buildings,  such  as  the  Sheldon  and  the  Franklin, 
are  thoroughly  modern  in  practically  every  aspect  of  construction 
and  equipment.  The  school  plant  supplies  the  material  facil- 
ities for  a  wide  range  of  educational  and  community  activities, 
classrooms,  assembly  room,  gymnasium,  manual  training  room, 
domestic  science  room,  branch  public  library,  cloak  rooms, 
nurse's  room,  shower  baths,  moving  picture  and  stereopticon 
facilities,  social  center  room,  teachers'  rest  room,  teachers'  lunch- 
room, a  room  for  ungraded  pupils,  etc.  Buildings  are  fireproof, 
well  lighted,  well  ventilated,  the  air  properly  heated,  changed, 
and  humidified;  and  general  sanitary  and  instructional  arrange- 
ments are  of  the  most  approved  type. 

Some  of  the  older  buildings  represent  types  of  construction 
long  since  superceded.  They  usually  offer  opportunity  for  but 
a  limited  range  of  community  and  educational  activities.  The 
writer  was  informed  that  when  the  present  Board  took  charge 
of  affairs,  the  building  situation  was  in  a  deplorable  condition. 
The  city  was  years  behind  in  its  building  program.  At  a  time 
when  the  city  was  growing  rapidly,  the  Board  has  had  the  double 


SUMMARY  OF  THE  SURVEY  501 

problem  of  making  good  past  deficiency,  at  the  same  time  supply- 
ing modern  provision  for  a  rapidly  expanding  school  population. 

Much  has  been  done  by  way  of  modernizing  all  the  older 
buildings  that  must  continue  to  serve  for  years  yet.  New  ven- 
tilation arrangements  have  been  made.  Modern  toilet  facilities 
have  been  installed.  New  windows  have  been  cut  in  rooms  that 
were  too  dark.  Unused  basement  rooms  have  been  made  into 
playrooms,  shops,  and  kitchens.  Older  heating  systems  have 
given  way  to  improved  modern  ones. 

While  the  Board  has  done  as  much  for  the  older  buildings 
as  its  funds  would  permit,  much  yet  needs  to  be  done  as  rapidly 
as  the  community  is  willing  to  supply  the  funds.  Briefly  stated, 
the  task  is  simply  to  supply  for  all  the  districts  of  the  city,  so 
far  as  is  reasonably  possible,  the  same  variety  of  social  and  edu- 
cational opportunity  that  is  now  supplied  with  districts  having 
the  newer  buildings.  Sometimes  this  will  mean  certain  further 
alterations  in  construction  or  equipment;  sometimes  the  building 
of  an  addition  which  ought  in  many  cases  to  be  but  the  first  unit 
in  the  construction  of  a  thoroughly  modern  fireproof  building 
which  is  to  take  the  place  of  the  older  building  years  hence ;  and 
in  a  few  cases  the  entire  building  ought  to  be  replaced  with  a  new 
structure  as  early  as  practicable. 

Financial  Report 

The  financial  situation  in  the  Grand  Rapids  school  system 
is  taken  up  in  great  detail  by  Dr.  Rugg,  who  discusses  the  finan- 
cial organization  of  the  system.  A  summary  of  his  findings 
is  as  follows: 

The  Cost  of  Public  Education  in  Grand  Rapids. 

Among  the  cities  of  100,000  to  150,000  population,  Grand 
Rapids  is  a  city  of  average  wealth.  It  ranks  ninth  in  19  cities 
of  that  size  in  real  wealth  per  inhabitant.  With  this  average 
wealth,  however,  it  is  supporting  schools  more  liberally  than  all 
but  two  other  cities,  Springfield,  Massachusetts,  and  Des  Moines, 
Iowa.  In  general,  it  shows  itself  to  be  a  leader  in  the  extent  to 
which  it  taxes  itself  for  schools.  Furthermore,  although  it  spends 
less  for  general  city  departments  than  most  cities  of  its  class,  it 
gives  a  larger  per  cent  of  its  municipal  revenue  to  schools  than 
any  other  city  of  the  same  size.  Forty-rfive  per  cent  of  its  city 
revenue  goes  to  schools,  whereas  it  is  common-.for_such  cities 
to  devote  twenty-five  per  cent  for  such  purposes. 

Although  the  city  has  been  liberal  in  its  endowment  of  edu- 
cation, it  can  hardly  be  commended  for  the  method  by  which  it 


502  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

has  raised  certain  portions  of  its  school  money.  Due  to  a  long 
period  of  neglect  of  school  buildings  a  decade  ago,  the  Board  of 
Education  was  forced  to  establish  a  thoroughgoing  building  pro- 
gram. Large  sums  of  money  were  needed,  and  over  two  million 
dollars  were  spent  for  such  purposes  in  the  ensuing  ten  years. 
The  larger  part  of  this  money  was  raised  by  bond  issues,  al- 
though at  the  same  time  the  Board  of  Education  had  a  large  un- 
used taxing  capacity.  The  law  permits  the  Board  to  raise  in 
any  one  year  six  mills  on  the  dollar  of  assessable  property  for 
current  running  expenses,  and  an  extra  five  mills  for  school 
buildings,  grounds,  additions,  etc.  This  is  an  unusual  privilege, 
for  most  such  cities  have  to  finance  all  their  school  work  on  6  or 
7  mills.  Notwithstanding  this  legal  power,  the  Board  has  never 
taxed  the  city  for  school  buildings  to  a  greater  extent  than  about 
one-third  of  the  possible  5  mills.  Instead,  it  has  been  forced  to 
sell  two  million  dollars'  worth  of  school  bonds,  using  a  method 
that  school  administrative  specialists  agree  is  not  wise  school 
business  policy. 

The  Board  has  been  desirous  for  years  of  building  its  school 
houses  out  of  taxation,  but  the  Common  Council  and  Board  of 
Estimate  have  not  permitted  this.  Thus  we  have  a  city  which  is 
extremely  liberal  in  its  support  of  schools  in  the  position  of 
handicapping  its  Board  of  Education  in  the  carrying  on  of  school 
business.  "The  most  adequate  treatment  for  the  future  could 
come  through  legislation  placing  the  taxing  power  in  the  hands 
of  the  Board  of  Education.  As  indicated  above,  to  do  so  would 
bring  Grand  Rapids  in  line  with  the  most  progressive  practice 
in  the  administration  of  school  finance.  The  reorganization  of 
the  Board  under  the  new  charter  ten  years  ago  eliminated  politi- 
cal influences  from  the  immediate  administration  of  the  Board's 
educational  and  business  services.  The  BoanLsiiojAkLlook  for- 
ward to  a  reorganization  of  taxing  methods  which  will  put  the 
raising  of  school  founds  rmntirh 
of  a  scientihcalty  plamietTTnidget." 

The  future  revenue  of  the  Board  of  Education  seems  fairly 
assured.  The  city  has  greater  legal  capacity  for  financing  schools 
than  many  other  cities  of  its  class ;  its  assessed  valuation  is  in- 
creasing very  rapidly,  having  doubled  in  10  years ;  its  taxes  for 
schools  increased  in  10  years  from_Z2°'  mills  in  1906  to^SJO  in 
1914.  If  property  values  increase  during  the  next  15  years  as 
they  have  in  the  past  fifteen  years  the  Board  will  face  no  imme- 
diate need  for  a  revision  of  the  taxing  limits  for  general  pur- 
poses.* As  pointed  out  above,  the  city  should  be  prepared  to 
give  the  Board  enough-ta ...b.uiJd_  its  schools  jput  of  tax_iripney 
instead  of  bond  issues.  Along  with  a  rapidly  increasing  expendi- 


SUMMARY  OF  THE  SURVEY  503 

ture  for  schools  has  gone  a  more  rapidly  increasing  revenue  with 
the  result  that  the  Board  has  been  forced  to  borrow  money  but 
once  in  fifteen  years  to  meet  current  expenses.  This  borrowing 
in  1912  was  due  to  a  change  in  the  legal  date  for  collection  of 
state  tax  money,  thus  hampering  the  Board  in  Grand  Rapids  to 
the  extent  of  $225,000. 

How  does  the  Board  spend  the  city's  money?    Investigation 
shows  that  the  Board  is,  in  the  main,  distributing  the  city's  money 
to_different  kinds  of  school  work  fairly  equitably.     That  is,  it 
ranks  firsjinJ^Lcities  in  its  a^tu^^ndmvment  of  educational  and 
busmess^overhead  charges  (administration)  and  in  the  amount 
it  spends  for  the  instruction  of  each  pupil  in  the  schools.     In  its 
attention  to  running  the  plant  and  keeping  it  in  good  repair  it 
spends   more   than   two-thirds   of  the   cities   of   its   cla$s.y  The 
Board  has  shown  a  tendency  to  give  relatively  more  attentions 
to  non-instructional  or  business  matters  than  to  purely  instruc-,  • 
tional  matters.     This  is  due  primarily  to  the  fact  that  GraruJ^ 
Rapids   has   a   two-headed   system   of   schxicd_-aiimiai&tration,   a 
business^  manager  over  all  busings  nffm'rs,  independent  of  the 
Superintendent  of  Schools  who  is  in  charge  of  only  educational 
matters.  _  It  is  the  conclusion  of  the  survey  staff  that  this  con^N 
plffon  should  be  changed  and  that  certain  other  departmental    J 
\lianges  be  brought  about  as  recommended  in  the  detailed  report.  / 

The  Board  is  paying  better  salaries  to  teachers  than  all  but 
c)iie  ci.ty  (Springfield,  Massachusetts)  of  Grand  Rapids'  class. 
However,  it  has  not  developed  jt}ie_supervisory  work  of  the 
schools  as  much  as  other  cities.  It  is  endowing  both  elementary 
aricT  secondary  schools  better  than  all  the  other  cities,  excepting 
Sprmgfield,  but  gives  a  much  larger  proportion  of  its  money  to 
its  high  schools  than  to  its  elementary  schools.  It  should  pay 
proportionately  more  attention.  to_developing  elejnentary  educa- 
tion TffTKe_city.  This  large  expenditure  per  pupil  for  secondary 
schools  is  caused  by  the  fact  that  Grand  Rapids  has  Bad  a  very 
rapidly  developing  high-school  ppj3ulaiiojL  ThisJiasmeaHt~four 
things :  a  rapidly  increasing  secondary  staff,  a  parallePdecrease 
in  the  size  of  classes,  a  decided  increase  in  the  secondary  pay- 
roll, a  parallel  increase  in  the  salary  schedule.  Salary  schedules 
for  both  elementary  and  secondary  schools  have  been  increased 
liberally  by  the  Board.  At  the  same  time  the  high-school  and 
grammar  classes  are  small  enough  to  provide  ample  opportunity 
for  good  instruction.  The  primary  classes  are  much  larger  and 
it  is  believed  that  more  attention  should  be  given  them. 

Within  the  past  five  years  the  Board  of  Education  has  de- 
veloped the  junior  high  schools  and  the  various  special  schools 
very  rapidly.  Inquiry  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  the  expendi- 


504  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

tures  for  these  purposes  are  probably  justified.  It  reveals,  how- 
ever, that  the  business  department  of  the  schools  is  not  working 
intensively  enough  in  the  accounting  end  of  such  activities.  The 
Board  never  obtained  a  statement  of  the  added  cos_Lx)f  surh  acti^ 
Cities.  The  survey  shows,  for  example,  that  it  costs  nearly 
twice  as  much  to  teach  a  pupil  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grade 
when  he  is  in  the  Junior  High  School  as  when  he~Ts  in  the  regu- 
lar  grammar  school  This  is  du<TTafgely  to  larger  salaries  paid 
to  teachers  and  smaller  classes.  "This  increased  expenditure  can 
very  easily  be  justj^edjr^the  increased  benefit  to  the  pupils. 
The  whole  problem  ol  cosP accounting  in  The  pubirc~schools 
should  be  taken  up  more  thoroughly: 

General  Administrative  Organization 

The  last  chapter  of  the  report  deals  with  the  administrative 
organization.  Under  the  Board  of  Education  there  are  two 
divisions  of  school  administration.  One  has  to  do  with  the  in- 
structional side  of  the  school's  activities ;  the  other  has  to  do 
with  the  business  organization.  The  unity  of  these  two  organi- 
zations is  secured  through  their  common  dependence  on  the 
Board  of  Education. 

Too  much  cannot  be  said  by  way  of  praise  of  the  attitude  of 
the  Board  of  Education  toward  problems  of  administration.  This 
body  is  free  from  political  influence  and  is  carrying  on  the  schools 
in  the  most  harmonious  way.  The  efficiency  of  the  school  or- 
ganization, while  it  is  to  be  attributed  in  large  measure  to  the 
school  officers  who  deal  directly  with  the  problems  of  the  class- 
room, is  also  to  be  attributed  to  the  spirit  and  temper  of  the 
general  administration  which  does  not  interfere  with  these  tech- 
nical officers  but  rather  supplies  them  with  the  equipment  which 
they  need  for  their  work. 

A  school  board,  whatever  its  spirit  of  administration,  faces  in 
a  modern  American  city  a  most  complex  problem.  This  prob- 
lem includes  buildings,  teachers,  and  central  administrative  offi- 
cers. To  hold  all  of  these  agencies  and  equipments  together  in 
such  a  way  as  to  offer  a  like  opportunity  to  all  of  the  children 
of  the  city  calls  for  the  highest  type  of  technical  knowledge  and 
technical  supervision.  Such  technical  supervision  and  unifica- 
tion of  the  school  system  can  be  provided  for  only  when  admin- 
istrative machinery  is  set  up  complete  enough  to  include  all  of 
the  interests  that  are  at  stake  and  impersonal  enough  to  treat 
all  of  these  interests  with  impartial  justice.  In  the  early  days  of 
American  school  organization,  when  school  systems  were  small, 
the  effort  was  made  to  direct  these  school  systems  through  per- 
sonal observation,  and  the  strong  influence  of  a  single  individual 


SUMMARY  OF  THE  SURVEY  505 

was  enough  to  guarantee  a  complete  organization  of  the  school. 
Today,  when  the  conditions  are  so  much  more  complicated,  it 
becomes  necessary  to  provide  the  school  system  with  the  means 
of  scientific  supervision.  There  must  be  a  constant  system  of 
reports  which  will  bring  to  the  central  office  information  re- 
garding the  activities  of  each  school.  For  example,  the  attempt 
has  been  made  to  show  in  this  report  that  much  closer  super- 
vision of  non-promotions  is  necessary  than  can  be  given  under 
the  present  method  of  dealing  with  that  problem.  This  closer 
supervision  cannot  be  of  a  purely  personal  type.  There  must 
be  a  standardization  of  practice  and  there  must  be  a  careful  anal- 
ysis of  all  departures  from  the  standard  practice. 

Scientific  supervision  means  a  more  elaborate  type  of  super- 
vision than  is  provided  at  the  present  time.  This  in  turn  'means 
a  more  definite  recognition  of  the  dangers  of  the  lack  of  unity. 
The  grave  problem  which  confronts  a  school  board,  therefore, 
is  the  problem  of  providing  more  agencies  of  supervision  while 
at  the  same  time  it  provides  greater  concentration  of  responsi- 
bility in  the  central  office. 

The  report  offers  several  examples  of  present  practices 
which  show  in  the  judgment  of  the  survey  staff  the  desirability 
of  a  union  between  financial  administration  and  instructional  ad- 
ministration. These  examples  are  intended  to  make  clear  the 
recommendation  of  the  survey  staff  that  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion take  steps  to  correlate  the  business  activities  of  the  Board's 
officers  more  closely  with  the  activities  of  the  officers  in  charge 
of  instruction. 

Conclusion 

The  report  in  general  shows  that  there  is  a  very  satisfactory 
condition  of  progress  in  the  Grand  Rapids  school  system.  In- 
struction is  of  a  high  order  and  results  are  relatively  superior. 
The  detailed  recommendations  which  have  been  outlined  in  this 
summary  and  are  presented  in  full  in  the  report  would  make  for 
an  improvement  of  a  school  system  already  well  organized  and 
carrying  on  its  work  in  a  very  adequate  fashion. 

Industrial  Education  Survey 

There  is  one  general  comment  which  is  introduced  at  a  num- 
ber of  points  in  the  report  and  may  be  made  the  subject  of  spe- 
cial remark.  Grand  Rapids  as  an  industrial  city  has  a  problem 
of  vocational  education  which  has  been  solved  only  in  part. 
There  are  now  provided  educational  opportunities  in  the  night 
classes  for  vocational  training  of  adults.  The  relation  of  vo- 


506  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 


cational  education  to  regular  school  work  requires  in  Grand 
Rapids,  as  it  does  in  most  American  cities,  more  attention  than 
has  been  accorded  to  that  problem  in  the  past.  The  kind  of 
reading  matter  which  children  have  in  the  schools  will  undoubt- 
edly have  to  be  modified  in  view  of  the  use  which  they  are  going 
to  make  of  reading  in  practical  life.  The  science  which  they 
study  would  furnish  a  very  interesting  and  useful  introduction 
to  a  study  of  industries.  Mr.  Bobbitt's  comments  on  the  course 
of  study  and  Mr.  Davis'  comments  on  the  need  of  enlarging  the 
manual  opportunities  of  the  junior  high  school,  all  point  in  the 
direction  of  a  general  problem  which  the  Grand  Rapids  system 
ought  to  face,  namely  the  problem  of  offering  an  opportunity  for 
more  industrial  education  to  the  young  people  of  the  city.  Modi- 
fications in  the  course  of  study  which  are  introduced  in  order  to 
solve  this  problem  ought  not  to  be  introduced  rashly.  The  only 
intelligent  procedure  for  any  community  is  to  find  out  what  are 
its  industrial  needs  and  what  are  the  relations  of  industry  to 
school  work.  The  complete  and  satisfactory  adjustment  of  re- 
lations in  this  matter  calls  for  a  careful  scientific  study  of  the 
situation.  This  could  be  carried  out  in  Grand  Rapids  by  a  sur- 
vey of  the  industries  such  as  has  been  made  in  Richmond,  Vir- 
ginia, or  in  Minneapolis,  Minnesota.  It  is  recommended  by  the 
present  survey  that  additional  investigations  of  this  type  be 
made  so  as  to  prepare  the  school  officers  and  the  community  for 
an  enlargement  of  the  school  work  to  include  industrial  educa- 
tion. 


INDEX 


Administrative  organization 476-483,  504 

Administrative  policies  of  Board  419 

Arithmetic 106-128,  490 

Failures  in  40 

Grand  Rapids  and  Cleveland  compared.... 

Instruction  in  186 

Test    106 

Assembly  rooms 346 

Auxiliary  classes   311 

Equipment  314 

History  and  organization  311 

Recommendations  325 

Selection  of  pupils  

Supervision    321 

Teachers 321 

Training  and  instruction   315 

Berry,  C.  S 13,  306,  484 

Blackboards    357 

Bobbin,  J.  F 13,  155,  340,  484 

Branch  Library  rooms  346 

Buildings  and  equipment  340-360,  500 

Bureau  of  Census  and  Statistics  of  the  Grand  Rapids  Schools 50,  473 

Business  management  of  the  public  schools 441-475 

Civics  178 

Classrooms    348 

Cleaning  of  buildings  357 

Cloak-rooms    347 

Commercial  branches  241 

Composition    85-105,  492 

Instruction  in  190 

Scale    86 

Test   85 

Conditional    promotions    

Cost,  of  high-school  education 429 

Of  intermediate  education  432 

Of  public  education  361-440,  501 

Counts,  G.  S 13,  106,  484 

Course  of  study,  Grand  Rapids,  Mich 248,  254 

Los  Angeles,  Cal 246 

Solvay,  N.  Y 242 

Trenton,  N.  J 247 

Courtis,  S.  A 186 

Cragun,  J.  B 13,  145,  485 

Creswell,  Mrs.   Cordelia  306 

Davis,  C.  0 13,  212,  485 


508  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

Defectives,  elimination  of 37 

Departmentalization  of  work  284 

Diagrams    

Dyer,  F.  B : 331 

Elementary  schools,  failures  in  36-60 

Non-promotions  in  36-60 

Elementary  science  240 

Elimination,  of  defectives  37 

Of  pupils  262 

English  231 

Enrollment,  high  school  according  to  subject 260 

Junior   College  267 

Expenditures,  Board  of  Education: 

Current   expenses    382 

Educational  vs.  business  387 

Educational  services  

Permanent  improvements  

Expenditures  for  school  purposes: 

Grand  Rapids  375 

Experience,  of  grade  teachers  

Of  high-school  teachers  

Of  kindergarten  teachers  

Of  principals  

Of  teachers  of  special  subjects  28 

Failures    290 

In  Arithmetic  

In  elementary  schools  36-60 

In  reading  40 

Foreign  languages  

Foreign  population  15 

Fortnightly  Club  330 

Francis,  J.  H 13,  208,  485 

Freeman,  F.  N 13,  129,  485 

Geography   180 

Grade  teachers,  experience  of 

Preparation   of   

Grammar    188 

Grand  Rapids  Public  Library 164 

Gray,  W    S.  13,  62,  485 

Greeson,  W.  A 306 

Gymnasiums    

Handwriting,  tests  in  

Harrington,  Dr 332 

Heating 349 

High  schools  

Enrollment  of 

Location  of  

Organization  of  ,. 214 

Recitation  periods  of 

High-school  teachers,  experience  of  28 

History 168,  237 

Instruction  of,  in  grammar  grades  

Household  occupations  

Industrial   education   262,  505 

Industries  of  Grand  Rapids  

Instruction  in  the  elementary  schools 155-207,  494 

Judd,  C.  H 13,  485 


INDEX  509 

Junior   College   499 

Grades  269 

Junior  high  school  organization  228,  497 

Kindergarten  teachers,   experience   of 27 

Preparation   of  , 25 

Lighting  351 

Manual    training    200 

Mathematics    233 

Methods  of  the  survey 484 

Music 147-154,  493 

Educational   148 

Instruction   in   199 

Recreational    147 

Nature  study  194 

New   buildings 340 

Non-promotions    in    elementary    schools 36-60,  487 

Investigation  of  50 

Percentages  in  various  grades  39. 

Reasons  for  37 

Older  buildings  and  equipment  344 

Open-air   classes   329 

Open-air  rooms  ~ 360 

Oral  reading  tests  63 

Organization  of  teachers  , 20 

Parochial   schools   16 

Penmanship    129-146,  491 

Physical   education   196 

Pittenger,  B.  F 13,  485 

Playgrounds 359 

Population,    foreign    15 

Preparation,  of  grade  teachers  25 

Of  kindergarten  teachers  25 

Principals,  experience  of 33 

Training  of  .' 33 

Promotions    290 

Reading 62-84,  489 

Comparison  of  in  Grand  Rapids  and  Cleveland 68 

Failures  in  40 

Instruction  in,  in  intermediate  and  grammar  grades 159 

Instruction  in,  in  primary  grades 157 

Interpretation  of  69 

Methods 162 

Recommendations  275,  302,  329,  334,  338,  448 

Retarded  pupils  307 

Revenue,  sources  and  amounts  of 370 

Rugg,  H.  0 13,  361,  441,  485 

Secondary  schools  212-305 

Secondary  school  system  as  a  whole 213 

School  accounting  471 

School  plant,  business  management  of  445 

Construction   of  462 

Maintenance   of  457 

Supplies 467 

Seating   355 

Senior  high  school  organization 254,  498 


510  SCHOOL  SURVEY,  GRAND  RAPIDS,  MICHIGAN 

Silent  reading,  quality  of 77 

Rate  of  74 

Tests   : 74 

Special  classes 306-339,  496 

Spelling  191 

Summary  report  ..... 484-506 

Supervised  study  223 

Survey  staff  13,  484 

Tables    

Taxation  for  school  revenue  365 

Teachers 20-35,  276,  485 

Academic,  preparation  of  21 

Experience  of  276 

Qualifications   of  251 

Salaries  of  276 

Special,  preparation  of  21 

Time  preparing  work  286 

Training  of  276 

Vacations  of  282 

Technical  training  of  teachers  21 

Tenure  of  teachers  21 

Tests,  introduction  to 61 

Training  of  principals  33 

Of  teachers  276 

Truant   School  334 

Ungraded  classes  325 

Vacation  schools  226 

Ventilation  349 

Willing,  M.  H.  .  ....13,  85,  485 

Woodruff,  Dr 332 


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mi 

OCT 


50m-7,'16 


YC  63 


399388 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


